Berkeley Lab Scientists ID New Driver Behind Arctic Warming

 

News Release Dan Krotz 510-486-4019 • November 3, 2014 New research indicates the Arctic Ocean traps more energy from far-infrared radiation than previously estimated, which is likely contributing to the warming of the polar climate. Scientists have identified a mechanism that could turn out to be a big contributor to warming in the Arctic region and melting sea ice. The research was led by scientists from the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). They studied a long-wavelength region of the electromagnetic spectrum called far infrared. It’s invisible to our eyes but accounts for about half the energy emitted by the Earth’s surface. This process balances out incoming solar energy. Despite its importance in the planet’s energy budget, it’s difficult to measure a surface’s effectiveness in emitting far-infrared energy. In addition, its influence on the planet’s climate is not well represented in climate models. The models assume that all surfaces are 100 percent efficient in emitting far-infrared energy. That’s not the case. The scientists found that open oceans are much less efficient than sea ice when it comes to emitting in the far-infrared region of the spectrum. This means that the Arctic Ocean traps much of the energy in far-infrared radiation, a previously unknown phenomenon that is likely contributing to the warming of the polar climate. Their research appears this week in the online early edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. “Far-infrared surface emissivity is an unexplored topic, but it deserves more attention. Our research found that non-frozen surfaces are poor emitters compared to frozen surfaces. And this discrepancy has a much bigger impact on the polar climate than today’s models indicate,” says Daniel Feldman, a scientist in Berkeley Lab’s Earth Sciences Division and lead author of the paper. “Based on our findings, we recommend that more efforts be made to measure far-infrared surface emissivity. These measurements will help climate models better simulate the effects of this phenomenon on the Earth’s climate,” Feldman says. He conducted the research with Bill Collins, who is head of the Earth Sciences Division’s Climate Sciences Department. Scientists from the University of Colorado, Boulder and the University of Michigan also contributed to the research. This simulation, from the Community Earth System Model, shows decadally averaged radiative surface temperature changes during the 2030s after far-infrared surface emissivity properties are taken into account. The right color bar depicts temperature change in Kelvin. (Credit: Berkeley Lab). The far-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum spans wavelengths that are between 15 and 100 microns (a micron is one millionth of a meter). It’s a subset of infrared radiation, which spans wavelengths between 5 and 100 microns. In comparison, visible light, which is another form of electromagnetic radiation, has a much shorter wavelength of between 390 and 700 nanometers (a nanometer is one billionth of a meter). Many of today’s spectrometers cannot detect far-infrared wavelengths, which explains the dearth of field measurements. Because of this, scientists have extrapolated the effects of far-infrared surface emissions based on what’s known at the wavelengths measured by today’s spectrometers. Feldman and colleagues suspected this approach is overly simplistic, so they refined the numbers by reviewing published studies of far-infrared surface properties. They used this information to develop calculations that were run on a global atmosphere climate model called the Community Earth System Model, which is closely tied to the Department of Energy’s Accelerated Climate Model for Energy (ACME). The simulations revealed that far-infrared surface emissions have the biggest impact on the climates of arid high-latitude and high-altitude regions. In the Arctic, the simulations found that open oceans hold more far-infrared energy than sea ice, resulting in warmer oceans, melting sea ice, and a 2-degree Celsius increase in the polar climate after only a 25-year run. This could help explain why polar warming is most pronounced during the three-month winter when there is no sun. It also complements a process in which darker oceans absorb more solar energy than sea ice. “The Earth continues to emit energy in the far infrared during the polar winter,” Feldman says. “And because ocean surfaces trap this energy, the system is warmer throughout the year as opposed to only when the sun is out.” The simulations revealed a similar warming effect on the Tibetan plateau, where there was five percent less snowpack after a 25-year run. This means more non-frozen surface area to trap far-infrared energy, which further contributes to warming in the region. “We found that in very arid areas, the extent to which the surface emits far-infrared energy really matters. It controls the thermal energy budget for the entire region, so we need to measure and model it better,” says Feldman The research was supported by NASA and the Department of Energy’s Office of Science. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory addresses the world’s most urgent scientific challenges by advancing sustainable energy, protecting human health, creating new materials, and revealing the origin and fate of the universe. Founded in 1931, Berkeley Lab’s scientific expertise has been recognized with 13 Nobel prizes. The University of California manages Berkeley Lab for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science. For more, visit www.lbl.gov. DOE’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit the Office of Science website at science.energy.gov/. Additional information: A paper describing this research, entitled “Far-infrared surface emissivity and climate,” is published the week of Nov. 3, 2014, in the online early edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

As Temperatures Rise, Soil Will Relinquish Less Carbon to the Atmosphere Than Currently Predicted

 

New Berkeley Lab model quantifies interactions between soil microbes and their surroundings News Release Dan Krotz 510-486-4019 • November 17, 2014 The soil above the Arctic Circle near Barrow, Alaska contains a tremendous amount of carbon. New research may help scientists better predict how much of this carbon will be released as the climate warms. Here’s another reason to pay close attention to microbes: Current climate models probably overestimate the amount of carbon that will be released from soil into the atmosphere as global temperatures rise, according to research from the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab). The findings are from a new computer model that explores the feedbacks between soil carbon and climate change. It’s the first such model to include several physiologically realistic representations of how soil microbes break down organic matter, a process that annually unleashes about ten times as much carbon into the atmosphere as fossil fuel emissions. In contrast, today’s models include a simplistic representation of microbial behavior. The research is published Nov. 17 on the website of the journal Nature Climate Change. Based on their results, the Berkeley Lab scientists recommend that future Earth system models include a more nuanced and dynamic depiction of how soil microbes go about the business of degrading organic matter and freeing up carbon. This approach could help scientists more accurately predict what will happen to soil carbon as Earth’s climate changes. These predictions are especially important in vulnerable regions like the Arctic, which is expected to warm considerably this century, and which holds a vast amount of carbon in the tundra. “We know that microbes are the agents of change when it comes to decomposing organic matter. But the question is: How important is it to explicitly quantify complex microbial interactions in climate models?” says Jinyun Tang, a scientist in Berkeley Lab’s Earth Sciences Division who conducted the research with fellow Berkeley Lab scientist William Riley. “We found that it makes a big difference,” Tang says. ”We showed that warming temperatures would return less soil carbon to the atmosphere than current models predict.” The complex and dynamic livelihood of soil microbes is captured in this schematic. For the first time, these processes are represented in a computer model that predicts the fate of soil carbon as temperatures rise. (Credit: Berkeley Lab) Terrestrial ecosystems, such as the Arctic tundra and Amazon rainforest, contain a huge amount of carbon in organic matter such as decaying plant material. Thanks to soil microbes that break down organic matter, these ecosystems also contribute a huge amount of carbon to the atmosphere. Because soil is such a major player in the carbon cycle, even a small change in the amount of carbon it releases can have a big effect on atmospheric carbon concentrations. This dynamic implies that climate models should represent soil-carbon processes as accurately as possible. But here’s the problem: Numerous empirical experiments have shown that the ways in which soil microbes decompose organic matter, and respond to changes in temperature, vary over time and from place to place. This variability is not captured in today’s ecosystem models, however. Microbes are depicted statically. They respond instantaneously when they’re perturbed, and then revert back as if nothing happened. To better portray the variability of the microbial world, Tang and Riley developed a numerical model that quantifies the costs incurred by microbes to respire, grow, and consume energy. Their model accounts for internal physiology, such as the production of enzymes that help microbes break down organic matter. It includes external processes, such as the competition for these enzymes once they’re outside the microbe. Some enzymes adsorb onto mineral surfaces, which means they are not available to chew through organic matter. The model also includes competition between different microbial populations. Together, these interactions—from enzymes to minerals to populations­—represent microbial networks as ever-changing systems, much like what’s observed in experiments. The result? When the model was subjected to a 4 degrees Celsius change, it predicted more variable but weaker soil-carbon and climate feedbacks than current approaches. “There’s less carbon flux to the atmosphere in response to warming,” says Riley. “Our representation is more complex, which has benefits in that it’s likely more accurate. But it also has costs, in that the parameters used in the model need to be further studied and quantified.” Tang and Riley recommend more research be conducted on these microbial and mineral interactions. They also recommend that these features ultimately be included in next-generation Earth system models, such as the Department of Energy’s Accelerated Climate Modeling for Energy, or ACME. The research was supported by the Department of Energy’s Office of Science. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory addresses the world’s most urgent scientific challenges by advancing sustainable energy, protecting human health, creating new materials, and revealing the origin and fate of the universe. Founded in 1931, Berkeley Lab’s scientific expertise has been recognized with 13 Nobel prizes. The University of California manages Berkeley Lab for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science. For more, visit www.lbl.gov. DOE’s Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit the Office of Science website at science.energy.gov/. Additional information: A paper describing this research, entitled “Weaker soil carbon-climate feedbacks resulting from microbial and abiotic interactions,” is published in Nature Climate Change‘s website on November 17, 2014.

Why are magazines in practice waiting rooms mainly old?

 

Fed up with complaints about the lack of up to date magazines in the waiting room of his general practice, Professor Bruce Arroll and colleagues set out to answer the question. Their findings are published in the Christmas issue of The BMJ. A total of 87 magazines were stacked into three mixed piles and placed in the waiting room of a general practice in Auckland, New Zealand. They included non-gossipy magazines (Time magazine, the Economist, Australian Women's Weekly, National Geographic, BBC History) and gossipy ones (defined as having five or more photographs of celebrities on the front cover). Of the 82 magazines with a date on the front cover, 47 were less than 2 months old and the rest were 3-12 months old. Each magazine was marked with a unique number on the back cover and monitored twice weekly. The main aims of the study were to find out if the new or old magazines disappeared first, to measure the rate of loss, and the loss of gossipy compared with non gossipy magazines. Afer 31 days the study was stopped and 41 of the 87 (47%) magazines had disappeared -- a disappearance rate of 1.32 magazines each day. Current magazines were more likely to go missing than older ones (59% compared with 27%). Gossipy magazines were over 14 times more likely to disappear at any time than non-gossipy magazines. Of the 19 non-gossipy magazines (four Time magazines and 15 of the Economist), none had disappeared by the end of the study. Of the 27 gossipy magazines, only one was left. Magazines that disappeared were also significantly cheaper than those that remained. This study is possibly the first to explain the lack of up to date magazines in doctors' waiting rooms and to quantify their loss, say the authors. Extrapolating their findings of 41 magazines each month at an average cost of £3.20 ($5.00; €4.00) per magazine over the 8,000 practices in the UK, this equates to £12.6m disappearing from general practices -- resources that could be better used for healthcare. Practices should consider using old copies of the Economist and Time magazine as a first step towards saving costs, suggest the authors. Further research would include identifying who or what is responsible for the removal of magazines, they conclude. Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by BMJ-British Medical Journal. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference: B. Arroll, S. Alrutz, S. Moyes. An exploration of the basis for patient complaints about the oldness of magazines in practice waiting rooms: cohort study. BMJ, 2014; 349 (dec10 20): g7262 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g7262

More-flexible digital communication

 

Communication protocols for digital devices are very efficient but also very brittle: They require information to be specified in a precise order with a precise number of bits. If sender and receiver -- say, a computer and a printer -- are off by even a single bit relative to each other, communication between them breaks down entirely. Humans are much more flexible. Two strangers may come to a conversation with wildly differing vocabularies and frames of reference, but they will quickly assess the extent of their mutual understanding and tailor their speech accordingly.   Madhu Sudan, an adjunct professor of electrical engineering and computer science at MIT and a principal researcher at Microsoft Research New England, wants to bring that type of flexibility to computer communication. In a series of recent papers, he and his colleagues have begun to describe theoretical limits on the degree of imprecision that communicating computers can tolerate, with very real implications for the design of communication protocols. "Our goal is not to understand how human communication works," Sudan says. "Most of the work is really in trying to abstract, 'What is the kind of problem that human communication tends to solve nicely, [and] designed communication doesn't?' -- and let's now see if we can come up with designed communication schemes that do the same thing." One thing that humans do well is gauging the minimum amount of information they need to convey in order to get a point across. Depending on the circumstances, for instance, one co-worker might ask another, "Who was that guy?"; "Who was that guy in your office?"; "Who was that guy in your office this morning?"; or "Who was that guy in your office this morning with the red tie and glasses?" Similarly, the first topic Sudan and his colleagues began investigating is compression, or the minimum number of bits that one device would need to send another in order to convey all the information in a data file. Uneven odds In a paper presented in 2011, at the ACM Symposium on Innovations in Computer Science (now known as Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science, or ITCS), Sudan and colleagues at Harvard University, Microsoft, and the University of Pennsylvania considered a hypothetical case in which the devices shared an almost infinite codebook that assigned a random string of symbols -- a kind of serial number -- to every possible message that either might send. Of course, such a codebook is entirely implausible, but it allowed the researchers to get a statistical handle on the problem of compression. Indeed, it's an extension of one of the concepts that longtime MIT professor Claude Shannon used to determine the maximum capacity of a communication channel in the seminal 1948 paper that created the field of information theory. In Sudan and his colleagues' codebook, a vast number of messages might have associated strings that begin with the same symbol. But fewer messages will have strings that share their first two symbols, fewer still strings that share their first three symbols, and so on. In any given instance of communication, the question is how many symbols of the string one device needs to send the other in order to pick out a single associated message. The answer to that question depends on the probability that any given interpretation of a string of symbols makes sense in context. By way of analogy, if your co-worker has had only one visitor all day, asking her, "Who was that guy in your office?" probably suffices. If she's had a string of visitors, you may need to specify time of day and tie color. Existing compression schemes do, in fact, exploit statistical regularities in data. But Sudan and his colleagues considered the case in which sender and receiver assign different probabilities to different interpretations. They were able to show that, so long as protocol designers can make reasonable assumptions about the ranges within which the probabilities might fall, good compression is still possible. For instance, Sudan says, consider a telescope in deep-space orbit. The telescope's designers might assume that 90 percent of what it sees will be blackness, and they can use that assumption to compress the image data it sends back to Earth. With existing protocols, anyone attempting to interpret the telescope's transmissions would need to know the precise figure -- 90 percent -- that the compression scheme uses. But Sudan and his colleagues showed that the protocol could be designed to accommodate a range of assumptions -- from, say, 85 percent to 95 percent -- that might be just as reasonable as 90 percent. Buggy codebook In a paper being presented at the next ITCS, in January, Sudan and colleagues at Columbia University, Carnegie Mellon University, and Microsoft add even more uncertainty to their compression model. In the new paper, not only do sender and receiver have somewhat different probability estimates, but they also have slightly different codebooks. Again, the researchers were able to devise a protocol that would still provide good compression. They also generalized their model to new contexts. For instance, Sudan says, in the era of cloud computing, data is constantly being duplicated on servers scattered across the Internet, and data-management systems need to ensure that the copies are kept up to date. One way to do that efficiently is by performing "checksums," or adding up a bunch of bits at corresponding locations in the original and the copy and making sure the results match. That method, however, works only if the servers know in advance which bits to add up -- and if they store the files in such a way that data locations correspond perfectly. Sudan and his colleagues' protocol could provide a way for servers using different file-management schemes to generate consistency checks on the fly. "I shouldn't tell you if the number of 1's that I see in this subset is odd or even," Sudan says. "I should send you some coarse information saying 90 percent of the bits in this set are 1's. And you say, 'Well, I see 89 percent,' but that's close to 90 percent -- that's actually a good protocol. We prove this." "This sequence of works puts forward a general theory of goal-oriented communication, where the focus is not on the raw data being communicated but rather on its meaning," says Oded Goldreich, a professor of computer science at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. "I consider this sequence a work of fundamental nature." "Following a dominant approach in 20th-century philosophy, the work associates the meaning of communication with the goal achieved by it and provides a mathematical framework for discussing all these natural notions," he adds. "This framework is based on a general definition of the notion of a goal and leads to a problem that is complementary to the problem of reliable communication considered by Shannon, which established information theory."

Training elderly in social media improves well-being, combats isolation

 

Training older people in the use of social media improves cognitive capacity, increases a sense of self-competence and could have a beneficial overall impact on mental health and well-being, according to a landmark study carried out in the UK. A two-year project funded by the European Union and led by the University of Exeter in partnership with Somerset Care Ltd and Torbay & Southern Devon Health and Care NHS Trust gave a group of vulnerable older adults a specially-designed computer, broadband connection and training in how to use them. Those who received training became more positive about computers over time, with the participants particularly enjoying connecting with friends and relatives via Skype and email. The aging population is one of the major challenges facing our society. It is expected that between 2010 and 2060, the number of people aged 65 and over across Europe will grow from 17.4% to 29.5% of the total population. The project, called Ages 2.0, aimed to assess the extent to which the internet and social media offer a tool for promoting active aging and addressing the social isolation that is too often a feature of older age. It found that those trained had heightened feelings of self-competence, engaged more in social activity, had a stronger sense of personal identity and showed improved cognitive capacity. These factors indirectly led to overall better mental health and well-being. Dr Thomas Morton of the University of Exeter, who led the project in the UK said: "Human beings are social animals, and it's no surprise that we tend to do better when we have the capacity to connect with others. But what can be surprising is just how important social connections are to cognitive and physical health. People who are socially isolated or who experience loneliness are more vulnerable to disease and decline. For these reasons finding ways to support people's social connections is a really important goal. This study shows how technology can be a useful tool for enabling social connections, and that supporting older people in our community to use technology effectively can have important benefits for their health and well-being." Participants in the study were all vulnerable older adults between the ages of 60 and 95 years of age who were receiving support from Somerset Care Ltd. The 76 volunteers were drawn both from those receiving care in the community and those living in any of the not-for-profit organisation's 31 residential care homes. Half of the participants were randomly assigned to receive training and the other half to a control group who received care as usual. The training involved the installation of an 'Easy PC package' consisting of a touch screen computer and keyboard, and a broadband internet connection. They were able to keep the computer for 12 months, including a three-month training period. One of the study's participants, Margaret Keohone, said: "Having this training changes people's lives and opens up their worlds, invigorates their minds and for lots of us gives us a completely different way of recognising our worth as we age. I was just slipping away into a slower way of life." Emma Green, the Care Technologist from Somerset Care who delivered training to Margaret and others in the study, said: "As the training programme developed with my participants their confidence grew and they were keen to tell me how family members had emailed back, Skyped or 'liked' a comment or a picture on Facebook. Seeing the smiles on my participant's faces when they Skyped a family member in the UK or abroad was such a special moment. "One of the best Skype calls was during a visit to my caravan in Cornwall when I Skyped a client who used to enjoy camping. We were around the camp fire and he was able to be a part of our group from the laptop, looking at the fire and joining in. They all know that I am only an email or Skype call away and it has been fabulous being a part of the Ages 2.0 project." Those behind the Ages 2.0 study hope its findings will help inform future policy on digital inclusion and the delivery of tele-health and tele-care strategies. Torbay and Southern Devon Health and Care NHS Trust (TSDHCT) was selected to participate in Ages 2.0 due to its forwarding-thinking and innovative way of working. TSDHCT pioneered the integrated approach to providing health and social care. In order to provide the best care possible for local people, particularly the area's high population of older residents, the trust developed health and social services which worked far more closely together and were able to respond to the whole care needs of an individual, rather than operating in isolation. The project team sought the trust's views on how the project could work in practice in the community. Mandy Seymour, Chief Executive at Torbay and Southern Devon Health and Care NHS Trust, said: "As a nationally acclaimed pioneer, Torbay has a long history of innovation and of the successful integration of health and social care. The Trust firmly believes that by bringing services together, and through participation in innovative projects, the needs of individuals who require care and support are better met. "We're always keen to build upon and ensure continuity of our integration success and Ages 2.0 has provided the perfect research mechanism to help promote discussions around future models of care. "The challenges of supporting an aging population in the community are well documented -- we encourage active aging with our local population by giving people opportunities to be independent and to enable them to be living well at home for longer. "The positive results of the project are interesting and the healthcare community will look at how this could help to influence strategies for supporting the increasing number of vulnerable and aging people in local communities." The researchers were interested in comparing results across different cultural contexts; therefore a parallel study took place in Italy. For more information visit: http://www.ages2.eu/en

Release of collected papers of Albert Einstein give insight into a genius

 

The collected papers of Albert Einstein's early life are now able to be viewed online The name "Einstein" is synonymous with genius. A cultural icon of the 20th century, the mere mention of his name prompts many to quote his famous mass-energy equivalence formula, E=mc2, whilst the photograph of him sticking out his tongue has become an instantly recognizable meme of the digital age. But what do we really know of the man behind the face and that equation; his home life, his dreams, his aspirations? To allow a glimpse into his private world, Princeton University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem have now released the collected works from Einstein's early life in digital form online for anyone to read. Einstein lectured at Princeton University from 1933 until his death in 1955, and it is this university that has taken charge of producing a new digital archive of around 5,000 documents in 13 volumes. The volumes of work have also been physically published and so far comprise the period of Einstein’s life from his youth up to the year 1923, when he was 44 years of age. Under the editorship of Diana Kormos-Buchwald, professor of physics and the history of science at the California Institute of Technology (CIT), The Einstein Papers Project is predicted to produce a complete set of works totaling around 30 volumes. This enormous number of volumes is due to the fact that Einstein bequeathed some 80,000 documents to the Princeton and Hebrew universities. Tasked with collating, organizing, translating, and publishing these vast tomes, the Einstein Papers Project still needs to produce versions of these volumes that carry on from 1923 through to 1955. However, given that much of the documentation was not delivered neatly bound in chronological order, ready for easy printing but, rather, stored in an assortment of shoeboxes, attics, and other hidey-holes, the task is made that much harder than even its sheer volume would suggest. The works that have been printed so far range from letters, notebooks, postcards, diaries, notebooks, and school reports. It is just one of these school entrance reports alone that shows a glimmer of Einstein’s true personality, and allows one to guess at his precocious nature. For example, in 1895, Einstein failed to gain entry to the Swiss Federal Polytechnic, and his entrance report for the Aargau District School evaluates him as having "great gaps" in his knowledge of French, and a need to redo his work on chemistry. One can only imagine the precocious young Einstein struggling to do work that held no real interest for him. However, the following year he must have knuckled-down a bit as, by 1896, he graduated from school with top marks in physics (of course) along with algebra and geometry, a reasonable grade in chemistry, and his lowest mark – you guessed it – in French. This is just one example in a plethora of fascinating tidbits. Merely glancing through the many tables of contents and alighting on the odd interesting page or two can fill up a number of enthralling hours exploring the back-story of Einstein. Everything from his finally being awarded a Nobel Prize after more than a decade of nominations, through to his personal worries on political tensions in Berlin, and on to his musings on art in Spain or an analysis on superconductivity, the Einstein document archives are a treasure trove of captivating information for academics, students, and historians alike. Visitors to the Einstein Papers site will find his documents separated into volumes, each of which is shown in chronological order. The series is also broken up into various topics, such as "Writings" and "Correspondence," along with documents based on Einstein’s location at the time, such as "The Swiss years." All of these volumes include various items including Einstein's published and unpublished articles, letters written by and to Einstein, lectures, research notebooks, book reviews, patent applications, and significant documents by others on his lectures, his life, and his speeches, along with interviews of him. All of which is extensively cross-referenced. The co-hosted (Princeton and Hebrew universities and CIT) archival database of the complete works so far also has a catalog of works that is searchable and viewable, however, it remains a largely academic site and information seems not so easily accessible as the Einstein Papers site. Though most of the documents on the Princeton Einstein Papers site are in Einstein’s native German tongue, each document published is also accompanied by an English translation. The rest of the volumes' contents, including the introduction, headnotes, footnotes, and other items specific to the structure of the book, are in English. A 14th volume of the documents, comprising more than 1,000 documents, is due for release in January 2015. Source: Princeton University

Death of a Family Farm

 

Family businesses remain one of the most popular forms of ownership in America. But when things go wrong, they go really wrong. By Kristina Johnson At the end of a road lined with the skeletons of old field equipment, Tony Azevedo sits in the living room of his white farmhouse and tells me not to expect much from his son Adam. "He had a breakdown," says the 62-year-old organic dairy farmer. "The Adam you met isn’t the Adam we raised." The house is a California Central Valley ode to country kitsch: Plates decorated with roosters hang on the walls; chicken-shaped salt-and-pepper shakers huddle on shelves; milk-maid figurines pose in a glass cabinet topped with silk flowers. Through the lace curtains of the front windows rises the "Old West" town that Tony built to showcase his antique collection and make money hosting cowboy-themed soirees. But if the décor is charming, the farm’s soon-to-be empty pastures are not. Sixty years after Tony’s father started the Double T dairy in Stevinson, the 600 Azevedo cows are for sale, and Tony and his son aren’t speaking to each other. Neither man will walk the thousand yards that separates their two houses in order to make peace. Adam Azevedo looks out over what is left of the family dairy herd on the farm in Stevinson, California in March 2014. Neither man will walk the thousand yards that separates their two houses in order to make peace. "I’m sure he thinks his dad let him down for selling out, and maybe it is my fault," Tony says, pedaling the shag carpet in front of his recliner. "But I’d like to cock him one too." When I ask Tony what advice he might have for other dairy farmers in business with their kids, he aims his fingers at his head like a pistol and shoots. It’s a gesture loaded with the frustration felt in many family businesses. Roughly 30% of American firms are family-owned, including top companies like Walmart, Mars, Inc. and Cargill. As parents reach retirement the transition of control and property to their children is so notoriously difficult that some families now call in professional "succession planners" to help avoid an all-out war. In family businesses across the country, it’s not uncommon for children to sue parents or for parents to write children out of the will. In the Azevedos’s case, the pressures of a historic drought and a dairy industry dominated by much larger players quickened the drama between father and son. But the bitterness they hold for each other is nothing if not personal. As Adam Azevedo tells me when I meet him, "The thing with a family farm is you can’t fire people or get the best guys to work for you. Family farms are only great if you have the farm paid for and you’re the one in charge." "Nothing is working out the way I wanted it to," said Adam Azevedo. "Those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God," Thomas Jefferson once wrote . And so began the mythologizing of the American family farm. If Europe was ruled by feudal estates, then America was a democracy of farms. It was here that a couple and their children could make their way on their own piece of earth. It was here that the family farmer watched over his own destiny. Even today, advocacy groups like Farm Aid call independent family farmers the "pillars of their communities." Almost all American farms are still owned by families and slightly fewer, 87%, rely primarily on family labor. But family firms dominate other sectors too, like construction, manufacturing, and automobiles. "Run well, family businesses can be some of the best," says Ted Clark of the Northeastern University Center for Family Businesses. "They invest for the long haul, offer long-term employment, and contribute to their communities." Clark points out that families often succeed in industries with high capital costs and low-profit margins (e.g., grocery stores and hotels). They can be more patient with profits and pay off expenses, like land, in the first generation. Tony Azevedo spent the morning getting his cows ready to be hauled to auction. Family feuds have a deep history in commerce. So while financial advisors love to pull out the statistic that just 30% of family businesses transition into the second generation, the fact is that that number is no worse—and arguably better— than the longevity of most non-family businesses, which don’t survive past six years. Nor is the family business model fading in the 21st century. The global consulting firm McKinsey & Company reported this year that of the "7,000 large companies expected to form in emerging markets between 2010 and 2025, 80% will be family enterprises." All that said, when a family business does close shop something additional feels at stake. It’s not just the bottom line that didn’t add up. It can also be the people—the people you’re supposed to love and be loved by. Family feuds have a deep history in commerce—from the Fords, who squabbled in court over Henry Ford II’s $350 million inheritance, to the Murdochs, who wished they weren’t related when youngest son James was nailed by the British Parliament for illegal phone hacking at News Corp. We expect bad behavior from media tycoons and billionaires, but humble family farmers aren’t always innocent either. The myth of family farms isn’t just that they are morally good, all-American, kinder to the land, or a well-oiled enterprise, but that the people on them are necessarily happy. "Selling the cows is the equivalent of losing your left arm. It's not the end of the world, but it takes some getting used to," Tony said. The collapse of the Azevedo family farm is then both heartbreakingly specific and sadly common. In 1973, Tony was 21 and recently married. He used a $37,000 bank loan to purchase 50 cows from his dad, fair and square. By 1995, he became the first San Joaquin Valley farmer to certify his operation as organic. By then, he and his wife, Carol, had four children. (Adam is their youngest.) Putting the organic label on the farm not only meant a better way to care for the land, but also assured premium pricing and protection from the market dips of conventional dairy. The choice paid off. Tony built his herd to 600 cows. His processor, Organic Valley Co-Op, marketed smiling pictures of the Azevedo grandchildren on milk cartons. And Tony earned industry-wide respect when he helped convince the National Organic Standards Board to pass the pasture rule, mandating that organic animals spend at least 120 days on grass each year. Without the rule, organic dairies could keep their cows largely indoors, crammed into stalls like conventional operations. Eight years ago, Tony offered Adam a partnership on the farm. Milk prices were high, and the unofficial plan was for Adam to buy Tony out after a few seasons. Adam was on board with this plan, but not because he wanted to work alongside his father. "I couldn’t stand my dad even then," he says. At age 34, he’s a tall man, built thick like a draft horse, with dark hair and darker eyes. He and his wife Kristy live with their three young children within shouting distance of his parents’ front porch. When I visit the property, after two weeks of leaving messages on his cellphone, I don’t expect him to answer his door. But he does and behind him kids’ toys, fast food wrappers, and soda cans are keeled over on the floor. The kitchen counters are covered with boxes and bags and more trash, as if the nearest Walmart had swollen like a river and swept through Adam’s squat ranch house. He suggests we talk outside. Adam Azevedo stayed in his home as the last of the family dairy cows were sold and trucked away. "I know my dad is telling everyone that I’m depressed, but that’s bullshit," Adam says, sitting across from me at a picnic table in his backyard. "The old man has dementia." In a way, this echoes what his father says of him—Tony claims that Adam is mentally unstable. They both might have a point. Adam wanted to expand the herd size and push the cows to produce more milk. He thought the farm should update to the latest technology. "The main difference between me and my dad is he still wants to farm like it’s the '50s. But in this industry, you have to get big or get out." Worse, the rains had failed for the third year in a row, stunting pastures and forcing farmers to keep their animals alive on expensive feed. Between 2012 and 2013, 170 dairies around the state shut down. With organic grain prices rising fastest of all, Adam was ready to abandon the dairy’s certification. About the only thing they agree on is the anger between them. If the Azevedos had hired a succession planner maybe they would have been able to see through the insults and contradictory claims, but as it was, neither man believed the other would compromise. That afternoon, Adam and I drive to the cemetery where his grandfather is buried. Like Adam’s carpet at home, the truck floor is a mess of discarded soda cans. Adam points to a car on the road. The driver used to farm with his brother, before they stopped speaking to each other. As we roll past fields, Adam shows me one farm and then another where families have splintered, until the ride feels like a tour of fathers who disowned sons and brothers who rejected a truce. "Farmers think they’re unique, but they’re not," says Wayne Rivers of the Family Business Institute when I ask him if other industries are as plagued by infighting. "Family issues are the number one reason family businesses of any kind fail," he says. Succession is chief among those "issues." Parents don’t want to admit their own mortality, so they wait too long to discuss inheritance. And adult children like Adam grow resentful when they have to clear decisions with Dad. Tony Azevedo's dog Guido watches as he heads into his house. Tony plans to get out of the organic dairy business and focus on his event business, which holds Western-themed weddings and parties. But who takes over, and when, is a conversation that typically doesn’t occur until too late. "In these businesses, parents can get away with treating the next generation like kids, even if they’re middle-aged," says Rivers. Of course, there are some adult sons and daughters who act like kids or who just aren’t qualified for their positions. When families insist on hiring from within, they don’t always get the best person for the job. Ted Clark at Northeastern University argues that a failing family enterprise can sometimes save itself by bringing in an outsider. "It’s ludicrous to say, 'Only kids who are sons of baseball players can be on the team."’ But who takes over, and when, is a conversation that typically doesn’t occur until too late. According to a 2014 study by PricewaterhouseCoopers, only 16% of family firms actually have a succession plan outlining the legal, financial, and personal parameters of assuming the business. Fortunately, bad communication is at least fixable, unlike, say, a historic drought. Whether on their own or with a mediator, families can learn tools to help them navigate the inevitable. In early May, I get a call from Tony. "The cows are going," he says, his voice slow and tired. "The last truck is coming this week, if you want to see." It’s a strange thing to be invited to witness a family’s wreckage, like being asked over to watch a church burn. When I pull into the dairy a few days later, I drive past the final huddle of cows, standing in the barn. They’re the only ones left to go—the pink-eyed and the runts, destined for ground beef. All of the healthier animals left earlier, headed to a 1,000-cow dairy in Idaho whose owner, Tony explains, had been in business with his stepson until "the goddam kid turned into an asshole and started treating his dad like an idiot." It’s an epidemic of sons," Tony said when he heard. I sit with Tony while he finishes breakfast. In less than an hour, there will be no more hooves on the grass here. No more milk in the Azevedo tank. Except for a few hundred acres that Tony rented to organic sweet-potato growers, the farm will retire into a postage-stamp venue for city-slicker parties. "I fought the fight," Tony says, sounding numb. "And now I’m ready for it to all be over." Tony Azevedo signs the paperwork to sell the last of his cows. He said he won’t get teary about it anytime soon. In the past, Tony has told me that he decided to sell the cows because of the drought or his own fatigue. Some days it was Adam’s spending that was to blame or American consumers, unwilling to pay for organic products that typically cost more to produce. But, when it came to laying blame for the fight with Adam, Tony has been unequivocal. It "is 100% my fault," he says. "I should never have partnered with him. If he had gone broke on his own that would have been his thing, not mine." Tony heads to the barn when the trailer pulls up at 10 a.m. Adam must have heard the truck turn down the driveway but he doesn’t come outside. I’ll ask him later whether he watched out his window as the animals were loaded in. "No," he’ll say, "I don’t care anymore." Months ago, Tony swore to me that he wouldn’t be able to see the animals go either. "They’ve been so good to us," he’d said then. But this morning, with his son still set against him, Tony just wants the cows gone. Maybe then his family can heal. Maybe then he can forgive himself for selling what his father worked so hard to start. Tony and the farmhands use canes to prod the animals into the carrier until the final hind leg jerkily clears the ramp and the trailer door closes. Tony doesn’t give a speech. Like one of the stoic cowboys in his movie posters, he grabs a shovel and silently pushes muck out of the barn. Adam Azevedo holds his niece Brooklyn as his father Tony Azevedo sits with his granddaughter Bryana, at left, in his home on the family dairy farm. I walk to Adam’s house once the cows are out of sight. He opens the door in pajama pants, his hair uncombed and his face shadowed. The living room is in no better shape than before, though he tells me that he and his wife are "organizing" in case they move soon. "I want to get out of California," he says. He wants to go somewhere where he can farm on his own terms. Whatever he does next, he hopes his children won’t ask to do it with him. This story was produced by the Food and Environment Reporting Network, an independent, nonprofit news organization focusing on food, agriculture, and environmental health. [Photos: Sarah Rice, Courtesy of FERN]

Avoid work pain by using computer models of humans first

 

Ali Keyvani wants to improve the health for operators in the automotive industry by creating computer models based on human movements. Most of us suffer from work related pain at some time. It is estimated that 70% of the working population are affected by problems with muscles or the skeleton in the Western World. Ali Keyvani wants to improve the health for operators in the automotive industry by creating computer models based on human movements. He now presents his thesis "Structuring and use of motion data for computer manikin work task simulations." Today, it is common to virtually build and simulate different elements of production lines including robots, machines, transfer belts, and other tools. However, one important element is usually missing in these simulation models: the humans themselves. Ali Keyvani focuses his research on operators, the humans in the factory, and explains more. Work related pain is caused by several reasons such as prolonged static work and non-suitable posture or motions. These disorders can be greatly avoided if work task postures and motions can be simulated and studied already in the product development phase. Computer evaluations make it possible to detect potential deficiencies in advance. Simulation of humans is rather a new trend called digital human modeling (DHM). There are some computer programs available and their purpose is to simulate and analyze human motions in 3D environment. Ali proposes different methods to improve the performance of such tools in work task simulations. "The DHM-tools used today have weaknesses. They are time consuming and the resulted motions are still far from looking natural. Most of them use computational models for human motion simulation. Despite considerable progress, these models are still lacking efficiency and creditability when it comes to ordinary but complicated motions such as walking, turning, etc. My research offers a database-assisted model which can simulate these ordinary motions and therefore increase the usability of today's DHM tools. The presented model uses recorded motions from real humans to generate a natural and smooth motion. The recorded human bananas are first structured properly in a motion database, and are later used by a simulation engine. Also, this model presents a new method to analyze simulated motions and to correlate the results to the epidemiological data," says Ali Keyvani. Ali has been part of a team in the project called CroMM. The project aims to develop an easy to use and automated simulation and visualization tool which enable industry to predict, visualize and evaluate the musculoskeletal burden on operators. Ali's contribution is within the evaluation scope. His results will lead to that the DHM tool can perform faster, easier and better. Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by University West. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

Earth's most abundant mineral finally has a name

 

A section of meteorite that landed in Australia in 1879. Bridgmanite was formed and trapped in the dark veins from the intense, quick shock of asteroid collisions. A team of scientists clarified the definition of Bridgmanite, a high-density form of magnesium iron silicate and the Earth's most abundant mineral – using Argonne National Laboratory's Advanced Photon Source. An ancient meteorite and high-energy X-rays have helped scientists conclude a half century of effort to find, identify and characterize a mineral that makes up 38 percent of the Earth. And in doing so, a team of scientists led by Oliver Tschauner, a mineralogist at the University of Las Vegas, clarified the definition of the Earth's most abundant mineral -- a high-density form of magnesium iron silicate, now called Bridgmanite -- and defined estimated constraint ranges for its formation. Their research was performed at the Advanced Photon Source, a U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science User Facility located at DOE's Argonne National Laboratory. The mineral was named after 1964 Nobel laureate and pioneer of high-pressure research Percy Bridgman. The naming does more than fix a vexing gap in scientific lingo; it also will aid our understanding of the deep Earth. To determine the makeup of the inner layers of the Earth, scientists need to test materials under extreme pressure and temperatures. For decades, scientists have believed a dense perovskite structure makes up 38 percent of the Earth's volume, and that the chemical and physical properties of Bridgmanite have a large influence on how elements and heat flow through the Earth's mantle. But since the mineral failed to survive the trip to the surface, no one has been able to test and prove its existence -- a requirement for getting a name by the International Mineralogical Association. Shock-compression that occurs in collisions of asteroid bodies in the solar system create the same hostile conditions of the deep Earth -- roughly 2,100 degrees Celsius (3,800 degrees Farenheit) and pressures of about 240,000 times greater than sea-level air pressure. The shock occurs fast enough to inhibit the Bridgmanite breakdown that takes place when it comes under lower pressure, such as the Earth's surface. Part of the debris from these collisions falls on Earth as meteorites, with the Bridgmanite "frozen" within a shock-melt vein. Previous tests on meteorites using transmission electron microscopy caused radiation damage to the samples and incomplete results. So the team decided to try a new tactic: non-destructive micro-focused X-rays for diffraction analysis and novel fast-readout area-detector techniques. Tschauner and his colleagues from Caltech and the GeoSoilEnviroCARS, a University of Chicago-operated X-ray beamline at the APS at Argonne National Laboratory, took advantage of the X-rays' high energy, which gives them the ability to penetrate the meteorite, and their intense brilliance, which leaves little of the radiation behind to cause damage. The team examined a section of the highly shocked L-chondrite meteorite Tenham, which crashed in Australia in 1879. The GSECARS beamline was optimal for the study because it is one of the nation's leading locations for conducting high-pressure research. Bridgmanite grains are rare in the Tenhma meteorite, and they are smaller than 1 micrometer in diameter. Thus the team had to use a strongly focused beam and conduct highly spatially resolved diffraction mapping until an aggregate of Bridgmanite was identified and characterized by structural and compositional analysis. This first natural specimen of Bridgmanite came with some surprises: It contains an unexpectedly high amount of ferric iron, beyond that of synthetic samples. Natural Bridgmanite also contains much more sodium than most synthetic samples. Thus the crystal chemistry of natural Bridgmanite provides novel crystal chemical insights. This natural sample of Bridgmanite may serve as a complement to experimental studies of deep mantle rocks in the future. Prior to this study, knowledge about Bridgmanite's properties has only been based on synthetic samples because it only remains stable below 660 kilometers (410 miles) depth at pressures of above 230 kbar (23 GPa). When it is brought out of the inner Earth, the lower pressures transform it back into less dense minerals. Some scientists believe that some inclusions on diamonds are the marks left by Bridgmanite that changed as the diamonds were unearthed. The team's results were published in the November 28 issue of the journal Science as "Discovery of bridgmanite, the most abundant mineral in Earth, in a shocked meteorite," by O. Tschauner at University of Nevada in Las Vegas, N.V.; C. Ma; J.R. Beckett; G.R. Rossman at California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, Calif.; C. Prescher; V.B. Prakapenka at University of Chicago in Chicago, IL. This research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, NASA, and NSF.

Hashimoto's vs. Hypothyroidism: What's the Difference?

 

A Look at Autoimmune Thyroid Disease and Underactive Thyroid Conditions Updated August 18, 2014. Written or reviewed by a board-certified physician. See About.com's Medical Review Board. Hashimoto's disease is a disease, and hypothyroidism is a condition. Hypothyroidism is most commonly caused by Hashimoto's disease, but the two terms are not interchangeable. Here is more information to help understand the difference. HASHIMOTO'S DISEASE Hashimoto's disease, sometimes known as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, autoimmune thyroiditis, or chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disease. In Hashimoto's, antibodies react against proteins in the thyroid gland, causing gradual destruction of the gland itself, and making the gland unable to produce the thyroid hormones the body needs. Diagnosis Hashimoto's disease is typically diagnosed by clinical examination that demonstrates one or more of the following findings: Enlargement of the thyroid, known as a goiter High levels of antibodies against thyroglobulin (TG) and thyroid peroxidase (TPO), detected via blood test Fine needle aspiration of the thyroid (also known as a needle biopsy), which shows lymphocytes and macrophages A radioactive uptake scan, which would show diffuse uptake in an enlarged thyroid gland Ultrasound, which would show an enlarged thyroid gland Symptoms Symptoms of Hashimoto's can vary. Some people have no symptoms whatsoever, and will have no demonstrable symptoms of the underlying condition. For many Hashimoto's patients, the thyroid becomes enlarged, a condition known as a goiter. The goiter can range from slight enlargement, which may have no other symptoms, to a substantial increase in size. Some people with Hashimoto's, especially those with a larger goiter, may feel discomfort in the neck area. Scarves or neckties may feel uncomfortable. The neck may feel swollen or uncomfortably enlarged, even sore. Sometimes the neck and/or throat is sore or tender. Less commonly, swallowing or even breathing can become difficult if a goiter is blocking the windpipe or esophagus. Hashimoto's typically involves a slow but steady destruction of the gland that eventually results in the thyroid's inability to produce sufficient thyroid hormone -- the condition known as hypothyroidism. Along the way, however, there can be periods where the thyroid sputters back to life, even causing temporary hyperthyroidism, then a return to hypothyroidism. This cycling back and forth between hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism is characteristic of Hashimoto's disease. So, for example, periods of anxiety/insomnia/diarrhea/weight loss may be followed by periods of depression/fatigue/constipation/weight gain. In some cases, the onset of Hashimoto's and elevation of antibodies will be accompanied by a variety of symptoms, including anxiety, difficulty sleeping, fatigue, weight changes, depression, hair loss, muscle/joint aches and pains, and fertility problems, among others. Treatment If a goiter causes difficulty swallowing or breathing, or is a cosmetic problem, then thyroid hormone replacement drugs (i.e., levothyroxine or natural desiccated thyroid) will usually be given to help shrink the thyroid. If drug treatment does not work, or the goiter is too invasive, then surgery to remove all or part of the thyroid may be recommended. Except in the case of a goiter, most endocrinologists and conventional physicians will not treat Hashimoto's disease, as diagnosed by elevated antibody levels, unless other thyroid function tests such as TSH are outside the normal range. There are, however, some endocrinologists, as well as holistic MDs, osteopaths and other practitioners, who believe that Hashimoto's disease -- as confirmed by the presence of thyroid antibodies -- along with symptoms, are enough to warrant treatment with small amounts of thyroid hormone. The practice of treating patients who have Hashimoto's thyroiditis but normal range thyroid function tests is supported by a study, reported on in the March 2001 issue of the journal Thyroid. In this study, German researchers reported that use of levothyroxine treatment for cases of Hashimoto's autoimmune thyroiditis where TSH had not yet elevated beyond normal range (people who were considered "euthyroid") could reduce the incidence and degree of autoimmune disease progression. In the study of 21 patients with euthyroid Hashimoto's Thyroiditis (normal range TSH, but elevated antibodies), half of the patients were treated with levothyroxine for a year, the other half were not treated. After 1 year of therapy with levothyroxine, the antibody levels and lymphocytes (evidence of inflammation) decreased significantly only in the group receiving the medication. Among the untreated group, the antibody levels rose or remained the same. The researchers concluded that preventative treatment of normal TSH range patients with Hashimoto's disease reduced the various markers of autoimmune thyroiditis, and speculated that that such treatment might even be able to stop the progression of Hashimoto's disease, or perhaps even prevent development of the hypothyroidism.   In the area of nutrition, promising findings from a number of research studies have pointed to the value of the mineral selenium in helping to combat autoimmune thyroid disease. Some studies have shown that selenium supplementation at the typically safe dose of 200 mcg per day can return elevated thyroid antibody levels to normal, or reduce them significantly, therefore warding off development of full autoimmune thyroid disease, and resulting hypothyroidism. For more information, see Seleniun and the Thyroid. Ultimately, however, the autoimmune attack on the thyroid makes the gland slowly less able to function, and eventually, the thyroid becomes underactive. When hypothyroidism itself can be measured by blood tests, many practitioners will finally diagnose the hypothyroidism, and treat the patient with thyroid hormone replacement drugs. Autoimmune Thyroiditis Atttacks In some cases, the thyroid becomes particularly inflamed, known as a thyroiditis attack. Dr. Steven Langer, author of the book Solved: The Riddle of Illness, refers to thyroiditis as like an "arthritis of the thyroid." He explains that just as arthritis attacks the joints with pain and inflammation, thyroiditis can mean pain and inflammation in the thyroid for some sufferers. And in particular, during a thyroiditis attack, common symptoms are anxiety, panic attacks, heart palpitations, swelling in the thyroid area, problems swallowing, and frequently, problems sleeping. "Thyroiditis attacks classically happen in the middle of the night," says Dr. Langer, which can be particularly troublesome in terms of the ability to sleep. Dr. Langer suggests taking some calcium/magnesium, which are nutrients that have a sedative effect, along with a pain reliever to relieve inflammation -- buffered aspirin or ibuprofen -- before you go to bed, this might help. He's found that this helps about two-thirds of his patients suffering from nighttime thyroiditis symptoms. Reducing swelling is a key aspect of dealing with thyroiditis attacks, according to Dr. Langer. "Just as with arthritis, an anti-inflammatory pain reliever doesn't cure the problem, but it temporarily ameliorates the symptoms." HYPOTHYROIDISM Many people with Hashimoto's disease end up hypothyroid, the situation where the thyroid is either underactive or, eventually, totally unable to function. Hashimoto's disease is a disease, and is the leading cause of hypothyroidism, which is a condition. The other causes of hypothyroidism include, among others: Graves' disease and hyperthyroidism treatments including radioactive iodine treatment (RAI) and surgery thyroid cancer treatment, including surgery to remove all or part of the thyroid surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid as a treatment for goiter or nodules use of antithyroid drugs (such as Tapazole or PTU) to reduce thyroid activity use of certain drugs, such as lithium The diagnosis and treatment of hypothyroidism itself is a detailed topic, and you can read more about it here at the site: REFERENCES Thyroid, 2001 Mar;11(3):249-55, "One-year prophylactic treatment of euthyroid Hashimoto's thyroiditis patients with levothyroxine: is there a benefit?" June 2001 Findings of the 83rd Annual Meeting of the Endocrine Society, Denver, Colorado Beckett GJ, Arthur JR. "Selenium and endocrine systems." J Endocrinol. 2005 Mar;184(3):455-65. Oct. 2002, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Vol. 87, No. 4 1490-1498   source : www.about.com