What Is the Upper Respiratory System?

 

The upper respiratory system is made up of everything from the nose to the trachea, including the nasal cavity, frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses, ethmoidal air cells, and the larynx. The bronchi and bronchioles airways, lungs, and alveoli make up the lower respiratory tract. The upper and lower respiratory system work together to exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen in the body.

On inhalation, air moves through the nose and travels to the nasal cavity. This cavity is behind and slightly above the nose. As air passes through this structure, it is warmed or cooled as necessary so that it is within one degree of body temperature. Short, dense hairs called vibrissae clean the air. The material filtered from the air moves into the esophagus and then the stomach.

The next stop in the upper respiratory system is the ethmoidal air cells and the frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses. These are small cavities lined with mucous membranes that surround the nasal cavity. The larynx, or voice box, is also part of this system. Located in the neck, the larynx is used for breathing, producing sound, and preventing food from entering the trachea. The larynx is home to the vocal cords, which are necessary for speech.

Located between the trachea and larynx is the epiglottis. The epiglottis closes during swallowing, to prevent food from entering the trachea. It is made of cartilage, and covered in mucous membrane. While not protecting the trachea during swallowing, the epiglottis points upward, toward the tongue.

The trachea is the last section of the upper respiratory system. It is also called the windpipe. The trachea connects the larynx to the lungs. It is lined with mucous producing cells that trap pollen and other inhaled particles to prevent them from entering the lungs. The trachea contracts when coughing to force air up, rather than down into the lungs.

The upper respiratory system is susceptible to infection, especially things like the common cold, otis media, sinusitis, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, and laryngitis. These illnesses typically last between seven and ten days. Symptoms include sneezing, pressure in the face, nasal congestion, low-grade fever, runny nose, cough, and sore throat. Treatment typically includes plenty of rest and fluids, along with treatment for pain and fever with over the counter medications. Antibiotic resistance has led to a decrease in the use of antibiotics for most minor upper respiratory infections.

 

 

The Spinal Cord

 

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers that is connected to the brain at the brain stem. The spinal cord runs down the center of the protective spinal column extending from the neck to the lower back. The brain and spinal cord are the major components of the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS is the processing center for the nervous system, receiving information from and sending information to the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral nervous system cells connect various organs and structures of the body to the CNS through the cranial nerves and spinal nerves. Spinal cord nerves transmit information from body organs and external stimuli to the brain and send information from the brain to other areas of the body.

Spinal Cord Anatomy

The spinal cord is composed of nervous tissue. The interior of the spinal cord consists of neurons, nervous system support cells called glia, and blood vessels. Neurons are the basic unit of nervous tissue. They are composed of a cell body and projections that extend from the cell body that are able to conduct and transmit nerve signals. These projections are axons (carry signals away from the cell body) and dendrites (carry signals toward the cell body). The neurons and their dendrites are contained within an H-shaped region of the spinal cord called "grey matter." Surrounding the grey matter area is a region called "white matter." The white matter section of the spinal cord contains axons that are covered with an insulating substance called myelin. Myelin is whitish in appearance and allows electrical signals to flow freely and quickly. Axons carry signals along descending and ascending tracts away from and toward the brain.
Neurons are classified as either motor, sensory, or interneurons. Motor neurons carry information from the central nervous system to organs, glands, and muscles. Sensory neurons send information to the central nervous system from internal organs or from external stimuli. Interneurons relay signals between motor and sensory neurons. The descending tracts of the spinal cord consist of motor nerves that send signals from the brain to control voluntary and involuntary muscles. They also help to maintain homeostasis by assisting in the regulation of autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and internal temperature. The ascending tracts of the spinal cord consist of sensory nerves that send signals from internal organs and external signals from the skin and extremities to the brain. Reflexes and repetitive movements are controlled by spinal cord neuronal circuits that are stimulated by sensory information without input from the brain.
The axons that link the spinal cord to the muscles and the rest of the body are bundled into 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each pair with a sensory root and a motor root that make connections within the grey matter. These nerves must pass between the protective barrier of the spinal column to connect the spinal cord to the rest of the body. The location of the nerves in the spinal cord determine their function.

Spinal Column

The spongy spinal cord is protected by the irregular shaped bones of the spinal column called vertebrae. Spinal vertebrae are components of the axial skeleton and each contain an opening that serves as a channel for the spinal cord to pass through. Between the stacked vertebrae are discs of semi-rigid cartilage, and in the narrow spaces between them are passages through which the spinal nerves exit to the rest of the body. These are places where the spinal cord is vulnerable to direct injury. The vertebrae can be organized into sections, and are named and numbered from top to bottom according to their location along the backbone:

• Cervical vertebrae (1-7) located in the neck
• Thoracic vertebrae (1-12) in the upper back (attached to the ribcage)
• Lumbar vertebrae (1-5) in the lower back
• Sacral vertebrae (1-5) in the hip area
• Coccygeal vertebrae (1-4 fused) in the tail-bone

The spinal cord is also organized into segments and named and numbered from top to bottom. Each segment marks where spinal nerves emerge from the cord to connect to specific regions of the body. Locations of spinal cord segments do not correspond exactly to vertebral locations, but they are roughly equivalent.

• Cervical spinal nerves (C1 to C8) control signals to the back of the head, the neck and shoulders, the arms and hands, and the diaphragm.
• Thoracic spinal nerves (T1 to T12) control signals to the chest muscles, some muscles of the back, and parts of the abdomen.
• Lumbar spinal nerves (L1 to L5) control signals to the lower parts of the abdomen and the back, the buttocks, some parts of the external genital organs, and parts of the leg.
• Sacral spinal nerves (S1 to S5) control signals to the thighs and lower parts of the legs, the feet, most of the external genital organs, and the area around the anus.

The single coccygeal nerve carries sensory information from the skin of the lower back.

Spinal Cord Injury

The consequences of a spinal cord injury vary depending on the size and severity of the injury. A spinal cord injury may cut off normal communication with the brain that can result in a complete or incomplete injury. A complete injury results in a total lack of sensory and motor function below the level of injury. In the case of an incomplete injury, the ability of the spinal cord to convey messages to or from the brain is not completely lost. This type of injury enables a person to maintain some motor or sensory function below the injury.

What Is the Spine?

 

Definition: Stacked on top of one another in the spine are more than 30 bones, the vertebrae, which together form the spine.

They are divided into four regions:

• seven cervical or neck vertebrae (labeled C1-C7)
• twelve thoracic or upper back vertebrae (labeled T1-T12)
• five lumbar vertebrae (labeled L1-L5)
• the sacrum and coccyx (fused bones at the base of the spine)

Vertebrae are linked by ligaments, tendons, and muscles. Back pain can occur due to injury, for example, improper lifting technique can cause a sprain, pull, strain, or spasm in one of these muscles or ligaments in the back. Between the vertebrae are round, spongy pads of cartilage called discs that act like shock absorbers.

Degeneration or pressure from overexertion can cause a disc to shift or protrude and bulge, causing pressure on a nerve and resultant pain. When this happens, the condition is called a slipped, bulging, herniated, or ruptured disc, sometimes resulting in permanent nerve damage.

The column-like spinal cord is divided into segments similar to the corresponding vertebrae: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal. The cord also has nerve roots and rootlets which form branch-like appendages. Along the dorsal root are the cells of the dorsal root ganglia, critical in the transmission of "pain" messages from the cord to the brain.

 

Basic Emotions and Basic Psychological Disorders

 

The Fundamental Four

Exploring the deepest motivational drives

by Sandeep Gautam

 

Eight basic emotions that underlie eight psychological disorder clusters.

I have written in past about the basic structure of emotions and identified eight basic emotions- four of them paired together viz. Fear-Disgust; Sadness-Anger; Joy- Love/Attentiveness and Interest-surprise. I have also tried to carve psychopathology at its joints, and come up with a psychological disorders taxonomy that places all major psychological disorders on eight dimensions/ clusters (2 internalizing clusters; 2 externalising clusters and 2 what I then named- relational clusters and 2 what I then named reality-distortion cluster.   

Further reading and thinking has made me realize that I can synthesize both basic emotions framework and psychopathology taxonomy/clusters into one comprehensive theory that also makes one realize the underlying emotional issues involved in major psychopathologies and may shed light on treatment and prevention.  In my next post I will correlate the framework I develop here with NIMH’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) extensively.

First let me list the basic emotions in some particular order (I believe that these emotions evolved/ differentiated along this order and this is evident in how these emotions become differentiated in ontogeny in infants’ facial expressions. 

1. Fear
2. Sadness
3. Anger
4. Disgust
5. Interest (excitement)
6. Love (attentiveness)
7. Surprise

Now let me delineate the eight major clusters of psychopathology:

1. Fear - Anxiety cluster: (Phobia, panic disorder etc)
2. Distress  – Depression cluster : ( Major depression (MDD), Generalized Anxiety (GAD), PTSD etc)
3. Anger- Impulsive Non-Conformity  : ( Conduct disorder, anti-social disorder, Oppositional defiant disorder etc)
4. Disgust – Dependence/ Addiction  : ( ADHD, substance abuse, addiction etc)  
5. Interest- Obsessive/Compulsive :  (Obsessive compulsive disorder, pathological gambling etc)
6. Joy- Mania: (Bipolar disorder, dark triad ( Psychopathic, Narcissistic, Machiavellian) )
7. Love- Delusions (magical thinking/ suggestibility) :  (Psychosis , schizophrenia, hypnotic trance)   
8. Surprise- Dissociation/paranoia:  (Dissociative identity disorder (DID), Depersonalisation, derealisation, amnesia, autism  etc)

The first 2 clusters are the internalizing disorders (internal emotion-laden problems) ; the next 2 clusters are externalizing disorders (exhibited in outward behaviours) ;  the next 2 are motivational disorder clusters in which the motivation system goes for a toss; and the last 2 are cognitive disorder clusters where thinking, memory etc cognitive processes go for a toss.

How does this relate to DSM-V vs ICD-11 vs RDoC controversy. I believe NIMH RDoC is on the right path: they have identified 5 domains:   -ve valance system (mapping to my Internalizing disorders clusters) ; +ve valance system (mapping to my Motivational disorders clusters); Systems for Social processes (mapping to my Externalizing disorders) and Congitive systems (mapping to my cognitive disorder clusters) .

 

Criteria for The World's Healthiest Foods

 

Among the thousands of different foods our world provides, the majority contain at least several of the nutrients our bodies need but to be included as one of the World's Healthiest Foods they had to meet the criteria listed below.

The criteria we used will also help you understand why some of your favorite (and also nutritious) foods may not be included on our list. For example, Readers have asked why pomegranate, a very nutritious food, is not included on our website. While pomegranates taste great and are rich in vitamins and flavonoid phytonutrients, they are still rather expensive which makes them not as widely available to many people.

1. The World's Healthiest Foods are the Most Nutrient Dense

The World's Healthiest Foods have been selected because they are among the richest sources of many of the essential nutrients needed for optimal health. We used a concept called nutrient density to determine which foods have the highest nutritional value.

Nutrient density is a measure of the amount of nutrients a food contains in comparison to the number of calories. A food is more nutrient dense when the level of nutrients is high in relationship to the number of calories the food contains. By eating the World's Healthiest Foods, you'll get all the essential nutrients that you need for excellent health, including vitamins, minerals, phytonutrients, essential fatty acids, fiber and more for the least number of calories. Read more about Our Food and Recipe Rating System.

2. The World's Healthiest Foods are Whole Foods

The World's Healthiest Foods are also whole foods complete with all their rich natural endowment of nutrients. They have not been highly processed nor do they contain synthetic, artificial or irradiated ingredients. And whenever possible, The Healthier Way of Eating recommends purchasing "Organically Grown" foods, since they not only promote your health, but also the health of our planet.

3. The World's Healthiest Foods are Familiar Foods

The World's Healthiest Foods are common "everyday" foods. These include the fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, lean meats, fish, olive oil, herbs and spices that are familiar to most people.

4. The World's Healthiest Foods are Readily Available

Although there are many foods that are exceptionally nutritious, many of them are not readily available in different areas of the country. The World's Healthiest Foods are foods that the majority people can easily find at their local market.

5. The World's Healthiest Foods are Affordable

We have selected foods that are not only familiar and available, but also affordable, especially if you purchase them locally and in season. This is also the time when they are the freshest and of the best quality.

6. The World's Healthiest Foods Taste Good

The World's Healthiest Foods are also some of the world's best tasting foods. We have created recipes using the World's Healthiest Foods that do not overpower, but enhance, the unique flavor of each food. Each recipe provides a flavor adventure so you can discover new ways to experience and enjoy the great natural tastes of these foods.

 

The World's Healthiest Foods

 

Click on each food-related link placed below to see its properties.

Vegetables

• Asparagus
• Avocados
• Beets
• Bell peppers
• Broccoli
• Brussels sprouts
• Cabbage
• Carrots
• Cauliflower
• Celery
• Collard greens
• Corn
• Cucumbers
• Eggplant
• Fennel
• Garlic
• Green beans
• Green peas
• Kale
• Leeks
• Mushrooms, crimini
• Mushrooms, shiitake
• Mustard greens
• Olive oil, extra virgin
• Olives
• Onions
• Potatoes
• Romaine lettuce
• Sea vegetables
• Spinach
• Squash, summer
• Squash, winter
• Sweet potatoes
• Swiss chard
• Tomatoes
• Turnip greens

Fruits

• Apples
• Apricots
• Bananas
• Blueberries
• Cantaloupe
• Cranberries
• Figs
• Grapefruit
• Grapes
• Kiwifruit
• Lemon/Limes
• Oranges
• Papaya
• Pears
• Pineapple
• Plums
• Prunes
• Raspberries
• Strawberries
• Watermelon

Seafood

• Cod
• Salmon
• Sardines
• Scallops
• Shrimp
• Tuna

Nuts & Seeds

• Almonds
• Cashews
• Flaxseeds
• Peanuts
• Pumpkin seeds
• Sesame seeds
• Sunflower seeds
• Walnuts

Beans & Legumes

• Black beans
• Dried peas
• Garbanzo beans (chickpeas)
• Kidney beans
• Lentils
• Lima beans
• Miso
• Navy beans
• Pinto beans
• Soy sauce
• Soybeans
• Tempeh
• Tofu

Poultry & Meats

• Beef, grass-fed
• Chicken, pasture-raised
• Lamb, grass-fed
• Turkey, pasture-raised

Eggs & Dairy

• Cheese, grass-fed
• Cow's milk, grass-fed
• Eggs, pasture-raised
• Yogurt, grass-fed

Grains

• Barley
• Brown rice
• Buckwheat
• Millet
• Oats
• Quinoa
• Rye
• Whole wheat

World's Healthiest Herbs & Spices

• Basil
• Black pepper
• Cayenne pepper
• Chili pepper, dried
• Cilantro & Coriander seeds
• Cinnamon, ground
• Cloves
• Cumin seeds
• Dill
• Ginger
• Mustard seeds
• Oregano
• Parsley
• Peppermint
• Rosemary
• Sage
• Thyme
• Turmeric

 

http://www.whfoods.com/foodstoc.php