Space Station Flyover of Gulf of Aden and Horn of Africa

European Space Agency astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti took this photograph from the International Space Station and posted it to social media on Jan. 30, 2015. Cristoforetti wrote, "A spectacular flyover of the Gulf of Aden and the Horn of Africa. #HelloEarth" Image Credit: NASA/ESA/Samantha Cristoforetti

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory - The Premise The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment. According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as "singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. What is a "singularity" and where does it come from? Well, to be honest, we don't know for sure. Singularities are zones which defy our current understanding of physics. They are thought to exist at the core of "black holes." Black holes are areas of intense gravitational pressure. The pressure is thought to be so intense that finite matter is actually squished into infinite density (a mathematical concept which truly boggles the mind). These zones of infinite density are called "singularities." Our universe is thought to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something - a singularity. Where did it come from? We don't know. Why did it appear? We don't know. After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded and cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this day and we are inside of it: incredible creatures living on a unique planet, circling a beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other stars in a galaxy soaring through the cosmos, all of which is inside of an expanding universe that began as an infinitesimal singularity which appeared out of nowhere for reasons unknown. This is the Big Bang theory. Big Bang Theory - Common Misconceptions There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example, we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say that there was no explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. Rather than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an infinitesimally small balloon expanding to the size of our current universe. Another misconception is that we tend to image the singularity as a little fireball appearing somewhere in space. According to the many experts however, space didn't exist prior to the Big Bang. Back in the late '60s and early '70s, when men first walked upon the moon, "three British astrophysicists, Steven Hawking, George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention to the Theory of Relativity and its implications regarding our notions of time. In 1968 and 1970, they published papers in which they extended Einstein's Theory of General Relativity to include measurements of time and space.1, 2 According to their calculations, time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy."3 The singularity didn't appear in space; rather, space began inside of the singularity. Prior to the singularity, nothing existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing. So where and in what did the singularity appear if not in space? We don't know. We don't know where it came from, why it's here, or even where it is. All we really know is that we are inside of it and at one time it didn't exist and neither did we. Big Bang Theory - Evidence for the Theory What are the major evidences which support the Big Bang theory? First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning. Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted. Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radioastronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin (-454.765 degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson shared in the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery. Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins. Big Bang Theory - The Only Plausible Theory? Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences? No, it's just the most popular one. Internationally renown Astrophysicist George F. R. Ellis explains: "People need to be aware that there is a range of models that could explain the observations….For instance, I can construct you a spherically symmetrical universe with Earth at its center, and you cannot disprove it based on observations….You can only exclude it on philosophical grounds. In my view there is absolutely nothing wrong in that. What I want to bring into the open is the fact that we are using philosophical criteria in choosing our models. A lot of cosmology tries to hide that."4 In 2003, Physicist Robert Gentry proposed an attractive alternative to the standard theory, an alternative which also accounts for the evidences listed above.5 Dr. Gentry claims that the standard Big Bang model is founded upon a faulty paradigm (the Friedmann-lemaitre expanding-spacetime paradigm) which he claims is inconsistent with the empirical data. He chooses instead to base his model on Einstein's static-spacetime paradigm which he claims is the "genuine cosmic Rosetta." Gentry has published several papers outlining what he considers to be serious flaws in the standard Big Bang model.6 Other high-profile dissenters include Nobel laureate Dr. Hannes Alfvén, Professor Geoffrey Burbidge, Dr. Halton Arp, and the renowned British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle, who is accredited with first coining the term "the Big Bang" during a BBC radio broadcast in 1950. Big Bang Theory - What About God? Any discussion of the Big Bang theory would be incomplete without asking the question, what about God? This is because cosmogony (the study of the origin of the universe) is an area where science and theology meet. Creation was a supernatural event. That is, it took place outside of the natural realm. This fact begs the question: is there anything else which exists outside of the natural realm? Specifically, is there a master Architect out there? We know that this universe had a beginning. Was God the "First Cause"? We won't attempt to answer that question in this short article. We just ask the question: Does God Exist? Footnotes: Steven W. Hawking, George F.R. Ellis, "The Cosmic Black-Body Radiation and the Existence of Singularities in our Universe," Astrophysical Journal, 152, (1968) pp. 25-36. Steven W. Hawking, Roger Penrose, "The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, series A, 314 (1970) pp. 529-548. Mark Eastman, Chuck Missler, The Creator: Beyond Time and Space, (1996) p. 11. W. Wayt Gibbs, "Profile: George F. R. Ellis," Scientific American, October 1995, Vol. 273, No.4, p. 55. See http://www.halos.com/reports/ext-2003-022.pdf See http://www.halos.com/reports/arxiv-1998-rosetta.pdf and http://www.halos.com/reports/ext-2003-021.pdf; see also http://www.halos.com/reports/arxiv-1998-redshift.pdf and http://www.halos.com/reports/arxiv-1998-affirmed.pdf

Formula for predicting innovation

By the time she was six years old, Nadya Bliss had already figured out her professional calling. She knew that one day she would be a mathematician. "I'm a geek at heart," confesses Bliss, now the assistant vice president for research strategy in Arizona State University's Office of Knowledge Enterprise Development. "But I've never wanted to be the kind of mathematician who just sits in the corner and does things on her own." Bliss knew that crunching numbers could have a broad impact beyond just the "geek" community. As a result, she seeks out interdisciplinary research opportunities that let her contribute to a wide variety of fields. She is currently working with science historian Manfred Laubichler, a professor in ASU's School of Life Sciences, part of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The two researchers have developed a set of mathematical techniques to detect the emergence of innovation in research. It's a broad framework that pulls together concepts from graph theory, electrical engineering and applied mathematics to identify interesting patterns from large networks. "Analysis of networks is basically analysis of entities and relationships among them--for example, people and their friends and how they're interconnected," Bliss says. Other examples of networks could be cars on a road, the interaction of proteins or computer networks. Bliss and Laubichler are focused on a network of research citations from about 300,000 authors in the field of developmental biology. Laubichler has compiled detailed analyses of certain periods of innovation, especially in developmental biology. He has extensive records of research breakthroughs and the scientists involved in them, dating back to the 1960s. Bliss used this data to create a mathematical filter that can detect certain patterns a citation network, ultimately identifying people who spurred innovation in developmental biology. When she applied the construct to a network of citations produced from 1969 to 1980, she got a positive result. The filter pinpointed a couple of key individuals, and after cross-referencing with Laubichler's historical records, Bliss determined they were involved in innovation. Next, the researchers applied the same filter to the developmental biology citation network from 1990 to 2000. Again, the results were positive, correctly identifying scientists involved in innovation. By analyzing the interactions among authors of scientific papers, the mathematical model serves as a kind of "formula for innovation," Bliss says. The filter Bliss and Laubichler created has several promising applications. For example, being able to detect the emergence of innovation would allow funding agencies to provide resources or support to the right people at the right time. "One application of this could be working with NSF to continuously track publications and apply the filters to these large networks and see where there are emerging patterns, and maybe detect them before they've emerged and identify those as areas of potential in the scientific community," Bliss says. A next logical step in the research would be to apply the filter to citation networks of other fields, outside of developmental biology. Ultimately, researchers believe the results could provide evidence for the efficacy of interdisciplinary research. "One of the things you actually see in publication networks is that a lot of times when there is a major change to the field, there is a set of fields that are touching each other, so authors from different areas end up working together," Bliss says.

Would you take dieting advice from a friend?

Is a new diet or exercise program working for a friend? If so, there's a good chance that you will try it, too. A person who finds success in a wellness program is more influential in getting friends to sign up than a charismatic, but less successful pal, according to a study by University at Buffalo occupational health researcher Lora Cavuoto. The study, "Modeling the Spread of an Obesity Intervention through a Social Network," was published in the Journal of Healthcare Engineering. "People want to see that positive influence," says Cavuoto, assistant professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences. "Understanding how social influence affects people's participation in health programs can lead to better-designed wellness interventions." Engineering doctoral candidate Mohammadreza Samadi and engineering graduate student Mahboobeh Sangachin worked with Cavuto on the study. Countless diets and weight-loss programs exist to combat the high rate of obesity among US people. But they do little good if people don't adopt them. Cavuoto's research will help diet and exercise programs reach more people by advising marketers on which people to target as endorsers. The study simulated the behavior of fictional people created using combinations of physical attributes and personality traits, such as the ability to lose weight and a high or low body mass index. The model distributed traits based on national population averages. Based on the simulations, people in social networks linked to someone who successfully lost weight or had a high body mass index produced the largest total weight loss among peers. The networks surrounding a person with a high number of friends -- those who were more charismatic or popular -- produced lower weight-loss totals. Cavuoto's results support the new approach many weight-loss programs have taken in attracting new participants: Celebrity endorsers with a large reach have taken a backseat to everyday people who benefit from a new diet or workout. "Your ties and social contacts may have a bigger effect because you see them every day and you have that close connection," says Cavuoto. "If they can be successful, then that's your best way of getting information out that a program is good." Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by University at Buffalo. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference: Mahboobeh Ghesmaty Sangachin, Mohammadreza Samadi, Lora A. Cavuoto. Modeling the Spread of an Obesity Intervention through a Social Network. Journal of Healthcare Engineering, 2014; 5 (3): 293 DOI: 10.1260/2040-2295.5.3.293

After reading this, you’ll never look at a banana in the same way again

This is interesting. After reading this, you’ll never look at a banana in the same way again. Bananas contain three natural sugars – sucrose, fructose and glucose combined with fiber. A banana gives an instant, sustained and substantial boost of energy. Research has proven that just two bananas provide enough energy for a strenuous 90-minute workout. No wonder the banana is the number one fruit with the world’s leading athletes. But energy isn’t the only way a banana can help us keep fit. It can also help overcome or prevent a substantial number of illnesses and conditions, making it a must to add to our daily diet. Depression According to a recent survey undertaken by MIND amongst people suffering from depression, many felt much better after eating a banana. This is because bananas contain tryptophan, a type of protein that the body converts into serotonin, known to make you relax, improve your mood and generally make you feel happier. PMS: Forget the pills – eat a banana. The vitamin B6 it contains regulates blood glucose levels, which can affect your mood. Anemia High in iron, bananas can stimulate the production of hemoglobin in the blood and so helps in cases of anemia. Blood pressure This unique tropical fruit is extremely high in potassium yet low in salt, making it perfect to beat blood pressure So much so, the US Food and Drug Administration has just allowed the banana industry to make official claims for the fruit’s ability to reduce the risk of blood pressure and stroke. Brain power 200 students at a Twickenham school ( England ) were helped through their exams this year by eating bananas at breakfast, break, and lunch in a bid to boost their brain power. Research has shown that the potassium-packed fruit can assist learning by making pupils more alert. Constipation High in fiber, including bananas in the diet can help restore normal bowel action, helping to overcome the problem without resorting to laxatives. Hangovers One of the quickest ways of curing a hangover is to make a banana milkshake, sweetened with honey. The banana calms the stomach and, with the help of the honey, builds up depleted blood sugar levels, while the milk soothes and re-hydrates your system. Heartburn Bananas have a natural antacid effect in the body, so if you suffer from heartburn, try eating a banana for soothing relief. Morning sickness Snacking on bananas between meals helps to keep blood sugar levels up and avoid morning sickness. MOSQUITO BITES: Before reaching for the insect bite cream, try rubbing the affected area with the inside of a banana skin. Many people find it amazingly successful at reducing swelling and irritation. Nerves Bananas are high in B vitamins that help calm the nervous system.. Overweight and at work? Studies at the Institute of Psychology in Austria found pressure at work leads to gorging on comfort foodlike chocolate and chips. Looking at 5,000 hospital patients, researchers found the most obese were more likely to be in high-pressure jobs. The report concluded that, to avoid panic-induced food cravings, we need to control our blood sugar levels by snacking on high carbohydrate foods every two hours to keep levels steady. Ulcers The banana is used as the dietary food against intestinal disorders because of its soft texture and smoothness. It is the only raw fruit that can be eaten without distress in over-chroniclercases. It also neutralizes over-acidity and reduces irritation by coating the lining of the stomach. Temperature control Many other cultures see bananas as a ‘cooling’ fruit that can lower both the physical and emotional temperature of expectant mothers. In Thailand , for example, pregnant women eat bananas to ensure their baby is born with a cool temperature. So, a banana really is a natural remedy for many ills. When you compare it to an apple, it has FOUR TIMES the protein, TWICE the carbohydrate, THREE TIMES the phosphorus, five times the vitamin A and iron, and twice the other vitamins and minerals.. It is also rich in potassium and is one of the best value foods around So maybe its time to change that well-known phrase so that we say, ‘A BANANA a day keeps the doctor away!’

Twitter the right prescription for sharing health research

Using Twitter can help physicians be better prepared to answer questions from their patients, according to researchers from the University of British Columbia. The study, presented today at the 2015 Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), finds more and more health care professionals are embracing social media. This challenges common opinion that physicians are reluctant to jump on the social media bandwagon. "Many people go online for health information, but little research has been done on who is participating in these discussions or what is being shared," says Julie Robillard, lead author and neurology professor at UBC's National Core for Neuroethics and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health. Robillard and fourth-year psychology student Emanuel Cabral spent six months monitoring conversations surrounding stem cell research related to spinal cord injury and Parkinson's disease on Twitter. They found roughly 25 per cent of the tweets about spinal cord injury and 15 per cent of the tweets about Parkinson's disease were from health care professionals. The study found the majority of tweets were about research findings, particularly the ones perceived as medical breakthroughs. The most shared content were links to research reports. The study also found the users tweeting about spinal cord injury and Parkinson's disease differed. Users who tweeted about spinal cord injury talked about clinical trials, while users who tweet about Parkinson's disease mostly talked about new tools or methods being developed to conduct research. Less than five per cent of the tweets spoke out against stem cell research, which surprised the researchers. "We expected to see debate on stem cell controversy," says Robillard. "But people are sharing ideas of hope and expectations much more than anything else." Robillard believes social media can help physicians become more aware of what their patients are consuming about scientific research beyond traditional media. This could help temper patients' expectations about potential treatments. Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by University of British Columbia. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

Ground-breaking lung cancer breath test in clinical trial

Owlstone Breath Analyser. University of Leicester and Leicester's Hospitals to evaluate revolutionary device which detects lung cancer in early stages. A clinical trial led by University of Leicester respiratory experts into a potentially ground-breaking 'breath test' to detect lung cancer is set to get underway at the Glenfield Hospital in Leicester. It is hoped that the LuCID (Lung Cancer Indicator Detection) programme will lead to a non-invasive method of diagnosing lung cancer in the early stages. The company behind the device, Cambridge-based Owlstone Nanotech Ltd, carried out a health economic analysis and determined that detection of early-stage lung cancer could be increased from the current 14.5% to 25% by 2020, it is estimated this could save 10,000 lives and £250m of NHS money. The device works by measuring volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at low concentrations in a patient's breath and offers a cheaper and smaller alternative to existing detection technologies. Supported by the University of Leicester's enterprise and business development team and Leicester's Hospitals, Owlstone was awarded £1m by the NHS Small Business Research Initiative (SBRI) towards the second phase of the LuCID project -- the clinical trials. The aim is to further evaluate Owlstone's GC-FAIMS (Gas Chromatography -- Field Asymmetric Ion Mobility Spectrometry) sensor in a rapid access lung cancer clinic at Glenfield Hospital, Leicester starting later this year. If successful, the project will pave the way to evaluate the technology in GPs' surgeries and other hospitals. Billy Boyle, co-founder of Owlstone, said: "If you could change only one thing in the fight against cancer, it would be to detect the disease earlier where existing treatments are already proven to save lives. FAIMS technology has the potential to bring a quick and easy-to-use breath test to a GP's office. Our team will not rest until we help stop the daily devastation that cancer brings to patients and their families." The clinical study is being led by Dr Salman Siddiqui, a clinical senior lecturer and adult chest physician at the University of Leicester and Glenfield Hospital with results of the trial expected in early 2016. The study will be delivered by a number of key members of the lung cancer clinical team including senior lung cancer clinician, Dr Jonathan Bennett. Dr Siddiqui added: "Lung cancer has one of the lowest 5-year survival rates of all cancers, however early diagnosis can greatly improve a patient's prognosis. Current diagnostic procedures such as a chest X-ray, CT scan and bronchoscopy are costly and not without risks so the benefits of a non-invasive, cheaper alternative are clear. "This project will seek to identify and evaluate biomarkers in order to improve the accuracy and reliability of breath diagnostic methods. We will also be aiming to establish FAIMS as a faster, less expensive and more portable alternative to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for breath diagnosis applications."

Apollo’s Historic Lunar Landing

Nan Wu Monday marks the 40th anniversary of the July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 moon landing by American astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins. (See related article.) In 1961, President John F. Kennedy spoke before a joint session of Congress in Washington. During the address, Kennedy issued the challenge, “. . .I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth.” (Associated Press) The three Apollo 11 astronauts next to their spacecraft in 1969, from left to right: Col. Edwin E. Aldrin, lunar module pilot; Neil Armstrong, flight commander; and Lt. Michael Collins, command module pilot. (Associated Press) Rocco Petrone, director of launch operations at the space complex in Cape Kennedy, Fla., pointed out the spot on the moon the Apollo 11 astronauts were aiming for on July 12, 1969. Eight days later, Lunar Module “Eagle” touched down gently on the Sea of Tranquility on the east side of the moon. (Associated Press) The S-1C booster for the Apollo 11 Saturn V was erected atop its mobile launcher at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. (NASA) Technicians made the final adjustments to Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong’s spacesuit as he prepared to take part in a test. (NASA) The Apollo 11 Saturn V space vehicle at twilight before launch, July 16, 1969. (Getty Images) The Apollo 11 flight crew were given instructions by technicians and management while undergoing training in preparation for the first manned landing on the Moon. (NASA) Two members of the Apollo 11 crew, along with a technician, crossed the access walkway on their way to board the mission’s command module, Cape Canaveral (then known as Cape Kennedy), Florida, July 16, 1969. (Getty Images) Personnel within the Launch Control Center watched the Apollo 11 lift off from Launch Complex 39A. The LCC is located 3.5 miles from the launch pad. (NASA) Swing arms moved away and a plume of flame signaled the liftoff of the Apollo 11. (NASA) Mr. Aldrin on the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission, during which he became the second man to set foot on the moon. (Getty Images) A television screen grab showed the members of mission control waving flags and celebrating the splashdown and return of the Apollo 11 crew in Texas in July 1969. (CBS/Getty Images) The Apollo Command/Service Module stationed over the moon’s surface during the Apollo 11 mission, 20th July 1969. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images) TV news anchor Walter Cronkite kept his eyes on his monitor as NASA’s Apollo 11 mission touched down on the moon on July 20, 1969. (CBS/Getty Images) A photograph of a television screen showed the astronauts on the moon. (CBS/Getty Images) A footprint left by one of the astronauts of the Apollo 11 mission showed in the soft, powder surface of the moon. (Associated Press) Astronaut Aldrin stood near a leg of the lunar module on the surface of the moon. (NASA) An unidentified Japanese family watched their TV screen as President Richard Nixon’s image was superimposed on a live TV broadcast of the Apollo 11 astronauts salute from the Moon. (Associated Press) Mr. Aldrin faced the camera as he walked on the moon. (Reuters) With a half-earth in the background, the lunar module “Eagle,” carrying Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, approached the Apollo command module manned by Michael Collins after Messrs. Armstrong and Aldrin walked on the moon. (NASA) After splashdown of the capsule, a Navy para-rescue man and one of the three astronauts closed the spacecraft hatch as the other astronauts watched from the life raft at the completion of their successful mission. The space pilots donned biological isolation garments in their spacecraft. (NASA) Then-U.S. President Richard Nixon applauded the Apollo 11 astronauts, who were confined in a quarantine trailer. (Getty Images) A commemorative button for the Apollo 11 moon landing showed the mission’s crew; from left, Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin. (Getty Images) New York City welcomed the Apollo 11 crew members in a showering of ticker tape down Broadway and Park Avenue on Aug. 13, 1969. The parade was termed the largest in the city’s history. Pictured in the lead car, from the left, are astronauts Aldrin, Collins and Armstrong. (Getty Images) An image of the earth rise was taken during a lunar orbit by the Apollo 11 mission crew in July 1969. (Getty Images)

Finding winners and losers in global land use

The United States added about 7.6 million acres of forests between 1990 and 2010, which may seem like a great environmental gain. But the real question is how the United States achieved that milestone, said Darla Munroe, associate professor of geography at The Ohio State University. "Reforestation in the United States may have come at the expense of some other country's forest," Munroe said. "There isn't any environmental gain for the world if we are saving trees here by simply getting trees for our paper products from some other place." This is just one example of how an increasingly complex, interconnected world makes it difficult to study sustainability and figure out who the winners and losers are, she said. Munroe studies how land is used in a global context, using concepts such as "telecoupling," which involves how humans and natural systems interact over long distances. She discussed some of her research on land use and sustainability and the challenges facing her field Feb. 13 in San Jose at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. While the world has changed significantly in recent decades, the tools and concepts that geographers use to study the world have not, she said. "The way we work and our conceptual framework aren't up to the 21st century world. We need to use ideas about how networks operate to understand connections across the globe," she said. Many of the issues that land-use researchers face have changed substantially in recent decades. One prime example is the rise of global agribusiness, which has major impact because of these companies' size, influence and speed in making decisions. For example, a Chinese food company may need to buy large quantities of soybeans and evaluate three or four sources from around the globe before making a quick decision based on fluctuations in soybean prices. The decision may lead to thousands of acres of forest being cut down in one country to make room for more fields and economically devastate farmers in another country that didn't get the contract. "These corporate decisions can have huge environmental impacts and they are made very quickly. It is hard for research to keep up," Munroe said. The rise of large multinational corporations may make it harder for land-use researchers to make sense of what is happening to the world. Corporations are much less transparent than governments in making their data and decisions publicly available, meaning that researchers may struggle to get all the information they need. But it is not just multinational corporations that have made the work of geographers more complex. Everything, in a sense, is multinational now, from trade and trade agreements to the work of international environmental groups. "We used to think about local land-use decisions filtering up to global markets. But now the global is in the local. They are all related and the challenge for land-use scientists is to keep up with the change," Munroe said. Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by Ohio State University. The original article was written by Jeff Grabmeier. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

New mechanism that controls immune responses discovered

UT Southwestern Medical Center researchers have identified a common signaling mechanism to produce interferon -- one of the main proteins used to signal the immune system when the body needs to defend itself against a virus, tumor, or other diseases. The findings are important for understanding the body's immune defense system, searching for compounds to turn the immune system on or off, and they may help combat autoimmune diseases, in which overactive immune cells attack healthy tissues. "Our work reveals a common mechanism by which three distinct pathways lead to the production of type-I interferons," said Dr. Zhijian "James" Chen, Professor of Molecular Biology and in the Center for the Genetics of Host Defense at UT Southwestern, and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI) Investigator. "Ultimately, we believe that understanding this mechanism will facilitate the design and development of medications to treat human diseases such as lupus." The findings appear online in the journal Science. The results show how a protein called interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), which controls the production of type-I interferons, is activated and how this pathway is tightly controlled. The failure of this control system can lead to autoimmune disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus, which causes joint pain and swelling, and can damage the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, and digestive track. Lupus affects more than 1.5 million Americans, and is more common in young and middle-aged women than in men. A normal function of interferons is to defend the body against infections from viruses, bacteria and parasites. Previous research has identified specific pathways that induce interferons in response to distinct infectious agents, but how these different pathways converge on IRF3 to induce interferons was not understood. Dr. Chen and his team studied a protein called MAVS, which they discovered in 2005 and showed that it is an adaptor protein essential for interferon induction by RNA viruses such as influenza virus. In the new study, they found that MAVS is modified by the addition of a phosphate group (phosphorylated) by an enzyme called TBK1 when cells are infected by a virus and that this modification is important for IRF3 activation. Upon closer examination, they found the amino acid sequence that is phosphorylated in MAVS is very similar to those of two other adaptor proteins, STING and TRIF, which mediate interferon induction in response to DNA viruses and bacteria, respectively. Further research confirmed that all three adaptor proteins are phosphorylated at the common sequence motif and that this phosphorylation allows each of the adaptor proteins to bind IRF3, thereby facilitating IRF3 phosphorylation by TBK1. The phosphorylated IRF3 becomes activated to induce type-I interferons. "Although TBK1 is required for IRF3 activation, TBK1 alone is not sufficient. Phosphorylation of the adaptor proteins provides a 'license' for TBK1 to phosphorylate IRF3," said Dr. Chen, who holds the George L. MacGregor Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Science. "This hitherto unrecognized mechanism ensures that type-I interferons are produced only when a proper adaptor protein is engaged in cells that are infected by pathogens." Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by UT Southwestern Medical Center. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference: S. Liu, X. Cai, J. Wu, Q. Cong, X. Chen, T. Li, F. Du, J. Ren, Y. Wu, N. Grishin, Z. J. Chen. Phosphorylation of innate immune adaptor proteins MAVS, STING, and TRIF induces IRF3 activation. Science, 2015; DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa2630