Drug research, development more efficient than expected..

February 27, 2015 University of Basel Despite ever increasing regulation in drug approval and the rising costs of research, drug research and development remains unexpectedly efficient, a new shows. To investigate the efficiency in the development of new drugs, the researchers analyzed a data set consisting of new drugs approved by the FDA. They looked at efficiency indicators that could potentially positively influence the approval of new drugs. Drug R&D costs have increased substantially in recent decades, while the number of new drugs has remained fairly constant, leading to concerns about the sustainability of drug R&D and question about the factors that could be responsible. To investigate the efficiency in the development of new drugs, the researchers analyzed a data set consisting of new drugs approved by the FDA. They looked at efficiency indicators that could potentially positively influence the approval of new drugs. Lower costs, faster approval The study lead by Prof. Thomas D. Szucs analyzed 257 new drugs that were approved by the FDA from 2003 to 2013. To assess the so-called innovation efficiency, the researchers analyzed specific parameters and factors. The study shows: Although there remains some potential for efficiency enhancement, several parameters have developed positively in the past decade. The researchers also discovered that new drugs get approved earlier and with less use of resources, when they entered the approval process assigned to special categories or programs. Affiliation to these categories alone reduces for example the probability of having to conduct expensive pivotal trials -- a clinical trial designed to test the effectiveness of a drug against a placebo control group. In conclusion the results show that market access of new drugs is not inefficient. Important is that "both industry and authorities work together in further developing drug approval in order to provide innovation to patients in a timely manner," says Szucs. Story Source: The above story is based on materials provided by University of Basel. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference: Rossella Belleli, Roland Fisch, Thomas D. Szucs. Regulatory watch: Efficiency indicators for new drugs approved by the FDA from 2003 to 2013. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 2015; 14 (3): 156 DOI: 10.1038/nrd4563

Garlic extract could help cystic fibrosis patients fight infection

Tue, 02/24/2015 - 12:31pm Corin Campbell, Univ. of Edinburgh A chemical found in garlic can kill bacteria that cause life-threatening lung infections in people with cystic fibrosis, research suggests. The study is the first to show that the chemical, known as allicin, could be an effective treatment against a group of infectious bacteria that is highly resistant to most antibiotics. Allicin is produced naturally by garlic bulbs to ward off a closely related group of plant pathogens found in soil and water habitats. In the 1980s, the bacteria—known as the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc)—emerged as a cause of serious and transmissible lung infections in people with cystic fibrosis. Measures to limit the spread of Bcc infections among people with cystic fibrosis have brought the number of cases down considerably. However, current therapies available to treat infections—that are potentially fatal—are limited and require the use of combinations of three to four antibiotics at a time. Researchers found that allicin—which can be extracted by crushing raw garlic—inhibits the growth of bacteria and, at higher doses, kills the plant pathogens. The team suggests that allicin kills Bcc bacteria by chemically modifying key enzymes. This deactivates them and halts important biological processes within the pathogens' cells. The team believes allicin-containing remedies could be used in combination with existing antibiotics to treat Bcc infections. However, the researchers say it is important to pinpoint the mechanisms by which allicin kills the bacteria before the chemical can be incorporated into new treatments. The Bcc are highly versatile plant and human pathogens that have not been studied to the same extent as other superbugs—such as MRSA—the team says. The bacteria produce potent antimicrobial agents which kill bacteria and fungi, making them naturally drug-resistant and allowing them to survive in polluted and antibiotic-rich environments. The team says the Bcc also have a range of potential uses in the agriculture industry. The study, published in PLoS One, was funded by the Univ. of Edinburgh and the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council. Prof. John Govan, of the Univ. of Edinburgh's Centre for Infectious Diseases, who co-led the study, said: "At a time when novel antimicrobial agents are urgently required, chemical and microbiological research has the potential to unlock the rich reservoir of antimicrobial compounds present in plants such as garlic. Allicin-containing compounds merit further investigation as adjuncts to existing treatments for infections caused by Bcc." Dr. Dominic Campopiano, of the Univ. of Edinburgh's School of Chemistry, said: "The medicinal power of garlic has a rich history that dates back thousands of years but the chemical structure of allicin was only revealed in the 1940s. Our work suggests that modern methods should be used to further expand our knowledge of this enigmatic molecule and rejuvenate its potential applications." Source: Univ. of Edinburgh

The surprising science of blue jeans

Indigo was once derived from plants before being widely replaced with synthetic dye. New research may bring it back to its roots and create more eco-friendly jeans. Video screenshot by Michael Franco/CNET A new video from the American Chemical Society's "Reactions" series explains a lot about the pants that have clothed everyone from gold miners to hipsters over the past 140-odd years. For example, you'll discover how your jeans need to be treated in an alkaline bath to get the indigo dye to adhere to them and how they are yellow when they come out of this process until they come in contact with the air, which turns them blue. One thing you might not discover from the video, however, is that a chemical in the indigo used to create all those jeans has been called environmentally damaging. As the video points out, indigo originally came from plants, but because of high demand, a synthetic solution was invented in 1897 by chemical company BASF. (BASF says the dye didn't start being sold for that purpose for another 17 years.) According to a report this month from the University of California at Berkeley, the jeans industry now uses about 40,000 tons of indigo per year (the video says 50,000 tons of indigo dye are made each year, over 95 percent of it used by jeans manufacturers, which comes out to about 47,500 tons). But there are concerns that a chemical used in the production of indigo can be toxic to fish and some other aquatic life. "And when sent to waste water treatment plants, it severely corrodes the piping," the report says. Contacted by CNET about the claims, BASF said it stopped making synthetic indigo a few years back. UC Berkeley bioengineering professor John Deuber (of the eponymous Deuber Lab) believes he may have a solution, says the report. He and his team decided to go back to the plant to see if there was a way to produce a "greener" indigo. In indigo-producing plants, a chemical called indican is locked in the leaves within a cage made from a sugar molecule. Indican is a precursor to indigo and, in fact, when the leaves are mashed up, they turn blue because the indican is released. Deuber and team discovered the enzyme responsible for creating the sugar cage and, by engineering bacteria with the enzyme's gene and other modifications, they believe they can turn the bacteria into indican-production machines. Bacteria in fermentation tanks would churn out indican locked in sugar cages. A second enzyme would be used to remove the cage, initiate the final chemical reaction and deliver pure indigo dye without the need to use a petroleum-based process. This would lead to "greener" blue jeans. "To find green solutions, our lab looks toward nature," Dueber says in the report. "We thought going back to the plants would be smart. If we can identify the enzyme the plants used to produce the sugar cage and clone its gene, we think the microbes can make large quantities of indican for dyeing jeans without the use of highly 'dirty chemicals.'" Dueber is now working on perfecting the process and figuring out how to create and market a commercially viable product. source. www.cnet.com

UC Berkeley remains all-time top producer of Peace Corps volunteers

Yasmin Anwar, Media Relations February 18, 2015   UC Berkeley philosophy graduate Mi-Hwa Saunders at the Peace Corps office in Oakland in 2011 before she served in the Cape Verde Islands off Africa. UC Berkeley, the all-time top producer of  Peace Corps volunteers since John F. Kennedy launched the program in 1961, continues to rank among the top 10 Peace Corps volunteer producers each year. The 2015 rankings, released today (Wednesday, Feb. 18), place Berkeley at No. 7 among large universities, with 54 alumni currently volunteering around the world. The University of Washington ranked first with 72 alumni currently serving in the Peace Corps, followed by the University of Wisconsin with 69 volunteers and the University of Florida with 66. “Every year the Peace Corps unveils the upper echelon of colleges and universities that have distinguished themselves at the top of its volunteer producing schools,” said Peace Corps West Coast Regional Manager Erin Carlson. “We take enormous pride in recognizing UC Berkeley as one of the 23 universities from the West Coast producing dedicated individuals who personify the Peace Corps mission of promoting world peace and friendship. We also congratulate the university for its Top Ten annual ranking for the past 13 years.” Since the Peace Corps’ inception 54 years ago, 3,598 UC Berkeley graduates have served abroad as volunteers, more than have volunteered from any other university. Among the current batch is Amanda Bensel, a 2008 graduate in environmental design who is currently serving in Nepal. “My education at UC Berkeley … taught me that there is no ‘silver bullet’ solution to any problem,” Bensel said.  “Peace Corps service offers a chance to take your education beyond theory and into practice; the experience is deeply humbling. Working on the ground, deeply immersed in a community will expand your understanding of development 100-fold, enlighten your perspective on both another country and the United States, and force you to see your true strengths and weaknesses as a professional.” In 2011, UC Berkeley celebrated the 50th anniversary of service in the Peace Corps, a government program originally intended to promote a better understanding between Americans and people from the developing world. Popular with college graduates, the Peace Corps offers the opportunity to travel overseas and learn about other cultures and perspectives, making a lasting difference on both the lives of volunteers and those they serve. source : http://bit.ly/1LT0qz4

The eyes have it: Cats put sight over smell in finding food

Cats may prefer to use their eyes rather than follow their nose when it comes to finding the location of food, according to new research by leading animal behaviourists. Felines have a tremendous sense of smell and vision, but the new study by researchers at the University of Lincoln, UK, has for the first time investigated which sense they prefer to use under test conditions -- and suggested sight may be more important than smell. A group of six cats were placed in a maze which had 'decision' points -- and the cats had to choose which avenue they took based on their preference for using images or smell. They were simultaneously presented with two squares of paper, each containing a different visual and odour cue. One combination of stimuli indicated they would receive a food reward, whereas the other led to no reward. Once the cats had learned the rules of the game and received food rewards for correctly choosing either the visual stimulus or the olfactory stimulus, the researchers separated the cues (visual versus olfactory) to investigate whether the cats were using their eyes or nose to solve the task. Four out of the six cats picked the visual cue, over the odour cue, to receive their food reward with only one cat preferring to use its nose and the sixth showing no preference. So it seems that when they had the choice, cats simply preferred the visual signals over the olfactory ones. The findings have now been published by the international journal Applied Animal Behaviour Science. Evy Mayes carried out the research at the University of Lincoln while she was studying for her Masters degree in feline behaviour and welfare. Evy, who is now working at Battersea Dogs & Cats Home, explained: "Up until now we really thought that the sense of smell would dominate how cats view their world, but we are now reconsidering this and also the implications of how we manage them. At Battersea Dogs & Cats Home we make sure that our cats are housed in the best possible environment -- one that respects the cat and provides each individual with whatever it needs in order to help it adapt to a rehoming environment. I was also particularly surprised by the speed at which the cats learned how to solve the task, which is very encouraging for future cat behaviour studies." Professor Daniel Mills, who supervised the study and is based in the University of Lincoln's School of Life Sciences, added: "We live in a complex world and use all of our senses to make sense of it. This is the first time we have asked cats how they operate rather than assumed this from what we know about their senses. Another important finding from this work is the individual variability -- different cats had quite fixed preferences, and this may have important implications for their welfare. If there is a cat which has a strong preference for using its nose then simple changes in the smell of the environment might have a big impact on it, whereas, for others it may be insignificant. This work provides a unique insight into the important principles of attending to the needs of the individual rather than the population in general for good welfare."

Minhas músicas preferidas /5/ Meu sonho – Sylvia Telles e Luiz Bonfá

Neptune Duo flips the roles of smartphones and smartwatches ... for some reason

With the Neptune Duo, the smartwatch plays the alpha role, with the (not quite a) phone taking the backseat Will smartwatches ever replace smartphones? And, if so, how will we play Candy Crush and watch Netflix or Sling TV on the go? Neptune, the company behind the ridiculously oversized Pine smartwatch, is back with a new device that tries to answer that question. The Neptune Duo starts with the Neptune Hub, a standalone 4G smartwatch. But it also adds an accessory that addresses the gaps left by even the most powerful standalone smartwatches. The "Pocket Screen" may look like a phone, but it reverses the roles that watches and phones play today: in Neptune's world, the watch has the smarts, and the phone serves as a second screen for viewing larger-form content that small screens aren't good for. The million dollar question is why would you do this? If you still have a watch on your wrist and a phone-like device in your pocket, with the sum total of functionality not very different from today's watch/phone combinations, why bother flipping the roles? Neptune's answer (apart from the implied we need a follow-up product that makes headlines) is that you'll never lose your personal info. Since the computing happens on the watch, and it's strapped to your wrist, you're less likely to leave it behind. And since the Pocket Screen is largely a dumb accessory, drawing its smarts from the watch, you can lose it on the train, swap out a new one or even borrow a friend's – without losing or giving away any personal data. Interesting pitch … but also quite a reach, as most smartwatches have lost phone alert features that buzz your wrist if you walk away without your phone. Doesn't this simple and ubiquitous feature that you can use on most watches today solve the same problem as Neptune's US$800 pair of devices? Back to the hardware itself, the Neptune Hub (again, that's the actual watch) runs Android 5.0 Lollipop with its own custom UI. The product page showcases a grid full of the most popular Android apps, suggesting (without actually stating) that it will run full Google Play services. Based on Google's policy on watches that run full Android, though, we wouldn't hold our breath for the Play Store coming preinstalled. Don't be shocked if the Neptune Duo launches with its own app store and requires you to sideload any apps that aren't lined up for yet another mobile marketplace. The Hub has a 2.4-in touchscreen (by comparison, the large Samsung Gear S has a 2-in screen, so this puppy is going to look huge), with a quad core processor and 64 GB of storage. The pocket screen, meanwhile, has a 5-in 720p display (very mid-ranged resolution, by today's standards) and picks up the watch's slack with a pair of cameras (8 MP on the rear, 2 MP on the front) and a 2,800 mAh battery. Apparently you can charge the watch with the screen, supposedly leading to several days' worth of battery life. You could argue that the battery is another case for the product's existence, but we've found that current watches like the Gear S, LG G Watch R and Asus ZenWatch can last around two days or more with regular use. By the time the Duo reaches customers' hands, we'd be surprised if the latest flagship smartwatches weren't all lasting two or more days. We've been eying the possibility of a smartwatch-centric future for the last few years, and, if nothing else, we have to tip our hats to Neptune's bold movement in that direction. But we also have to scratch our heads at its skewed logic, and acknowledge that this all reeks of a solution in search of a problem. Like the Neptune Pine, it's an exciting "why not?" concept, but when it comes to selling it as a consumer product, it's hard to see this getting past a very niche, early adopter audience. If you are the early adopter that Neptune is looking for, then you can reserve the Pine now, or make a pledge through the company's website. It's going to cost $798 for Hub and pocket screen. The Duo is estimated to ship in late 2015. Source: Neptune

Boeing and RAAF triple bomb range with new JDAM-ER kit

The Joint Direct Attack Munition-Extended Range (JDAM-ER) precision bomb kit developed by Boeing and Australia’s Defence Science and Technology Organisation (Image: Boeing) Boeing and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) have carried out tests of the Joint Direct Attack Munition Extended Range (JDAM-ER), which showed a three-times increase in range while maintaining accuracy. The add-on guidance kit for bombs was put through its paces at Australia's Woomera Test Range, where the 500-lb (227 kg) ordnance was dropped by RAAF F/A-18 Classic Hornets from altitudes ranging from 40,000 ft (12,190 m) down to 10,000 ft (3,048 m). The Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) now manufactured by Boeing isn't a new weapon, but a low-cost kit that is bolted on to standard "dumb" bombs to give them some smarts. Using guiding fins and a GPS-aided inertial navigation system, a JDAM-equipped bomb can land within 13 m (42 ft) of its target. Since it’s a retrofit, it’s also relatively cheap at US$27,000 a unit. So far, over 260,000 tail kits have been made and are used by 27 countries. The JDAM-ER is the latest variant. Jointly developed by Boeing and Australia’s Defence Science and Technology Organisation, it's intended for use on the RAAF’s 500-lb bombs and will be built in Australia. It differs from the standard JDAM in that it has wings that unfold in flight to triple the range from 15 mi (24 km) to over 45 mi (72 km). The modular nature of the kit means that it can be easily upgraded as technology improves and options such as improved laser sensors, GPS jamming immunity and an all-weather radar sensors can be added. "The JDAM ER wing kit takes advantage of the conventional JDAM aircraft interface and Small Diameter Bomb glide technology," says Beth Kluba, vice president, Boeing Weapons and Missile Systems. "This keeps integration, development and sustainment costs low while bringing customers the range increase needed to neutralize current and future threats." The JDAM-ER is slated for further tests this year, including flight and certification testing, followed by production and first deliveries by Boeing to the RAAF. Source: Boeing

O Poder dos Cogumelos para Salvar o Planeta

RainSpirit julho 8, 2013 Em uma pequena fazenda de cogumelos aninhada há cerca de uma hora de distância de Seattle, Paul Stamets põe a mão na massa. Abaixo do solo em todo lugar da Terra está a maior rede de comunicação organismo-organismo: A internet natural, como ele a chama. Stamets é um dos principais micologistas (que estudam os cogumelos e sua estrutura raiz conhecida como micélio) do mundo. Há um imenso poder no micélio, ele diz, para coisas tais como aumentar a imunidade humana, limpar vazamentos de óleo, e nos proteger contra surtos de doenças. Mas mais do que qualquer coisa, Paul Stamets adora sentir o cheiro dele. O fato de que cogumelos possuem poder próprio é uma surpresa-pelo menos para mim. Muitas pessoas imaginam os cogumelos como pragas de jardim, ou como alimento. Em uma TED Talk que Stamets deu em 2011, ele tentou mostrar que cogumelos possuem potencial para fazer mais pelo planeta do que qualquer outra forma de vida, incluindo a humana. É tempo, ele argumentou, de libertar os cogumelos das garras dos gourmets e senhores das guerras psicodélicas. Cogumelos Morel, conhecidos por serem difíceis de crescerem fora de um laboratório, nasceram na fazenda de Stamets. O que faz os fungos tão únicos é o fato de que suas células são feitas de uma molécula chamada quitina, em vez de celulose, como ocorre com as plantas. A quitina é maleável, mas também resistente. A sua habilidade de defender-se de patógenos externos faz com que ela adquira valor na medicina e como alimento. Talvez o melhor de tudo, ela cresce rápido. Algumas raças se iniciam do tamanho de uma unha e se tornam 90 toneladas de biomassa em apenas alguns meses. Corpulento e barbudo, Stamets têm a aparência de um homem que realmente sabe do que está falando. A maneira que ele fala-largando termos como “formação de amilóides” e “extratos pré-esporulantes”- faz com que eu lembre que não sei. Ele dirige uma empresa chamada Fungi Perfecti e divide o tempo entre sua fazenda em Shelton, Washington, e viajar o mundo procurando por novos cogumelos que ele pode trazer de volta para o laboratório para analisar e cultivar. Quantos micologistas existem atualmente no mundo, eu perguntei para ele quando caminhávamos pela sua floresta-quintal que aparentava estar repleta de micélio. “Cerca de 50.000″, ele disse. “Mas somente 5.000 estão empregados”. Isso faz dele um dos sortudos. Sua estrutura é uma fazenda em escala completa para o cultivo de micélio. As placas de “Não Ultrapasse” e avisos que você está sendo gravado fazem parte do plano de Stamets para manter a fazenda segura, tanto de futuros ladrões procurando por raças de cogumelos valiosas, e, ocasionalmente, do governo. Alguns anos atrás, Stamets disse que  um helicóptero Blackhawk sobrevoou a fazenda suspeitando de atividades ilegais. Isso é algo a que os micologistas estão acostumados. Ele diz que não tem nada a esconder, mas ainda assim ele não confia nos policiais, então ele disse para todos os empregados pegarem amostras de diferentes raças que poderão ser replicadas mais tarde, e então se espalharem. Acabou por ser um grande mal-entendido. Nós temos acesso ao entendimento do que cogumelos e suas raízes podem fazer. Cogumelos Shiitake são conhecidos por aumentarem a imunidade e abaixarem o colesterol. Cogumelos white button possuem antioxidantes que reduzem o risco de problemas de coração. Mas são espécies menos conhecidas como turkey tail , oyster e agarikon que Stamets deseja estudar para meios que, nas palavras dele, podem salvar o planeta. Cogumelos oyster em particular estão sendo testados por sua habilidade de limpar vazamentos de óleo. Uma raça que Stamets ajudou a desenvolver é tolerante à água salgada e pode metabolizar hidrocarbonetos. Um teste mostrou que uma raça do cogumelo oyster pode reduzir contaminantes de óleo diesel do solo de 10.000 partes por milhão para somente 200 em apenas alguns meses. O processo não é uma solução instantânea para o desastre, mas mostrou eliminar o óleo completamente organicamente, sem usar os tipos de dispersantes químicos controversos usados no Golfo do México após o vazamento de 2010. Stamets segura diversos cogumelos lions mane que ele cultivou. Estudos mostraram que eles podem ter pistas na luta contra doenças como alzheimer, esclerose múltipla e demência. Outros cogumelos como os Mycena alcalina, têm o potencial de quebrar Bifenilpoliclorados, um agente causador de câncer utilizado uma vez na fabricação de latas. Stamets explicou como os cogumelos, se dado a eles tempo de ativarem seus próprios sistemas de defesas, podem ser uma defesa contra armas químicas que podem espalhar doenças infecciosas como Varíola. “Aqui, cheire isto”, disse Stamets, aproximando um punhado de micélio do meu nariz. Parecia com salada de repolho, mas tinha cheiro de terra rica, viva; Terra ligeiramente picante que eu não pude fazer nada senão cheirar novamente. “Não é incrível, ahh, eu poderia cheirar isso o dia inteiro”. Apesar de mais de quatro décadas estudando cogumelos, Stamets é um homem que parece genuinamente apreciar falar de suas qualidades. Ele mesmo vai todos os anos para o festival Burning Man, o festival na Nevada do Norte, só para falar deles. Ser um expert em um campo tão pequeno tem suas vantagens também. Em um quarto Stamets nos mostrou diversos vidros de extratos líquidos de cogumelos, elixires potentes que contêm raças avançadas de alguns micélios. “As empresas farmacêuticas querem muuuuito isso”, ele nos contou. Uma semana antes de nossa visita, de fato, uma empresa que ele não quis identificar ligou e pediu para ele dar o preço que ele quisesse por algumas de suas raças mais raras de se encontrar, que possuem potencial para novas drogas.   Traduzido de: National Geographic

A little tablet time probably won’t fry a toddler’s brain

Scientists weigh the pros and cons of smart screen time for toddlers Helen Thompson 4:00pm, February 26, 2015 Scientists and parents wonder whether tablets are all fun and games for toddlers. ARSELA/iStock Give a toddler an iPhone and 10 minutes, and she’ll take at least 50 selfies and buy a car on eBay. Give her an iPad, and she’ll stumble upon decidedly non-kid-friendly episodes of Breaking Bad. With smartphones and tablets, children are exposed to an unprecedented amount of screen time on a daily basis. As with other tech toys, kids can pose a hazard to smart devices, possibly cracking the screen or dropping it a cereal bowl in the process. But how will exposure to these screens affect their brains and behavior? Most of the research on screen time has focused on television. Previous studies suggest that children under 30 months learn less from educational TV programs like Sesame Street than they do from real-life interactions. TV exposure can take the place of playing outside and chatting and playing with parents and other caregivers — with negative effects on the child’s development. Too much TV has been linked to issues with language development, attention issues and, perhaps less directly, obesity. And in older children, the amount of time a child spends watching TV also corresponds to the degree of change seen in their growing brains. But there aren’t many published studies on toddlers and tablets, so for the most part it’s an open question what effect adding a smartphone and iPad to the 60-inch LED TV will have on a developing child. “As parents we will need to keep adapting to a changing culture and rapidly evolving technologies, and it’s our job to protect our child’s most important relationships and learning experiences while not driving ourselves crazy with guilt for every bit of screen time our child gets,” says Jenny Radesky, a pediatrician at Boston University Medical Center. Radesky and her Boston University colleagues Jayna Schumacher and Barry Zuckerman published a review paper on the subject in the January 1 Pediatrics. They call for new recommendations for parents and more research on the effects of this particular flavor of screen time on toddlers. Based on what little work has been done, they also offer some preliminary guidance. The TV studies can provide guidelines about how long kids should be watching and at what age. In 1999, the American Academy of Pediatrics came out with a statement discouraging media use in children under two years old. They reaffirmed that position in 2011, and again in October of 2013. However, the organization has yet to take a direct stance on smartphones and tablets. While these devices can function as simple viewing screens, smartphones and tablets can be more than a portable television. For one thing, they’re interactive. That opens the door to potential education and development benefits. “No app can read a child’s cues and respond contingently the way a caregiver can, at least not yet,” Radesky says. “But apps can respond to child prompts, taps or vocalizations.” This interactive facet might mean children could learn from small screen media at an earlier age than current recommendations suggest. Dimitri Christakis, a pediatrician at Seattle Children’s Research Institute, advocated as much in an opinion piece in JAMA Pediatrics last May. But, linking screen time to what’s going on in the brain and to behavior is hard. His lab recently found that 15- to 18-month-old toddlers playing with blocks had higher levels of cortisol, a hormone that regulates stress levels, compared with those watching DVDs. That would suggest that a little stress, measured by cortisol in this experiment, may be associated with activities that toddlers can learn from. Christakis thinks that, when it comes to cortisol levels, tinkering with apps on a tablet may be more like playing with blocks than watching a screen. But researchers don’t really know what healthy levels of cortisol are in infants. In general, it’s also hard to link cortisol levels to long-term brain or behavior effects. Tablets and smartphones can also facilitate interactions with parents, family and friends. A 2013 study in Child Development found that video chatting through a smartphone app can be just as effective as chatting in person when it comes to helping 24- to 30-month-old children bond and learn new words. Last year, Laura Sanders wrote about her involvement in project at Georgetown University that’s looking further into how children interact with video calls. Radesky is keen to investigate what kids can learn from apps versus the real world and whether apps might be more beneficial for some children versus others — like kids who develop language skills slower or those with neurobiological issues. In the education realm, there’s a lot of potential, but also a lot of hype. E-books and apps designed to help kids learn to read could help with early literacy by exposing toddlers to letters, words and phonetics. The few studies that have been done focus on older children, though. At the same time, e-books often come with extras like sound effects and videos that can be distracting, potentially messing with the child’s attention and understanding of the story or the task or the lesson they’re supposed to be learning. “The delight a child gets from touching a screen and making something happen is both edifying and potentially addictive,” Christakis writes. Just like with TV, setting limits reduces the potential for developing tablet-addicted toddlers. At this point, Radesky and her colleagues affirm that it’s up to parents to use their best judgment. Trying an app or game before turning a toddler loose on it is always a good idea, they write.  It’s hard to sift through the millions of apps out there that market themselves as education products to figure out what actually works and what doesn’t. For now, parents looking for advice on the subject can turn to organizations that focus on early childhood development, like Zero to Three or Resources for Early Learning. The New America Foundation has reviewed some literacy apps, but their effectiveness may depend on the level of stimulation and the child’s age. “For kids 2 and younger, there’s no evidence that apps can teach anything,” Radesky says. Despite the call for more research on the subject, results from ongoing and future studies may not even end up vindicating or condemning toddlers’ exposure to tablets and smartphones. “It’s not a pro or con, black or white type of argument,” says Radesky. “It’s more about balance, content and how we use the device.” And while the long-term effects of small-screen screen time on toddlers remain unclear, anecdotal field studies and tech repair shops confirm that toddlers can be lethal to smartphones and tablets.