Neutron beams reveal how two potential pieces of Parkinson’s puzzle fit

 

Thu, 01/29/2015 - 11:44am Chad Boutin, NIST The proteins GCase (in pink) and α-syn (blue) forms a complex in cellular membrane. Neutron reflectometry (suggested by the yellow beam) revealed the structure of the complex. α-Syn shifts GCase slightly away from membrane, possibly contributing to effects related to Parkinson’s disease. Image: Alan Hoofring/NIH Medical ArtsTo understand diseases like Parkinson’s, the tiniest of puzzles may hold big answers. That’s why a team including scientists from NIST have determined how two potentially key pieces of the Parkinson’s puzzle fit together, in an effort to reveal how the still poorly understood illness develops and affects its victims. This puzzle is a tough one because its pieces are not only microscopic but 3-D, and can even change shape. The pieces are protein molecules whose lengthy names are abbreviated as GCase and α-syn. The two proteins wrap around each other and take on a complicated shape before attaching themselves to the membrane surface inside a neural cell in a victim’s brain.  While much remains unknown about Parkinson’s, clues abound that the proteins’ behavior is somehow important. Parkinson’s victims have a buildup of α-syn in their cells, a possible factor in the dementia that the disease often brings. They also are far more likely to have a mutation in the gene that instructs cells to create GCase. Low levels of GCase cause another disease, Gaucher, and in some individuals suffering from both Parkinson’s and Gaucher simultaneously, Parkinson’s may appear at a younger age.  To get a better handle on how these proteins operate in the body, the team—which also included scientists from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and Carnegie Mellon Univ.—came to the NIST Center for Neutron Research (NCNR) to get a picture of how the two proteins combine into a single unit called a complex that interacts with cell membranes. Using techniques including neutron reflectometry, the team teased out the first-ever structural picture of the GCase/α-syn complex, including their shape change, which NIH’s Jennifer Lee says would not have been detectable by any other methods.  “It gives us a potential interaction model of the two and structural insights in how α-syn may interfere with activity on a cell membrane,” Lee says. “An equally important contribution here is that this is the first, I believe, to look at complex formation at the membrane interface using neutron science.”  The study still leaves many mysteries about the complex—notably how it attaches to and interacts with the membrane inside a part of the cell called the lysosome where α-syn is broken-down. The team plans to follow up with additional investigations, especially once an improved reflectometer that could offer greater resolution arrives at the NCNR in about 2017. Meanwhile, the results of the current study—and the tools that provided them—will give the team other options to explore.  “It lays the groundwork for exploring the complex relationship between proteins that are involved in the causes of disease,” Lee says. “This will also offer a way for us to investigate other substances that would affect the interaction.” Source: NIST

10 cool Psychology Jobs

 

10 Psychology Jobs

Psychological disorders

 

List of psychological disorders

Extreme oxygen loss in oceans accompanied past global climate change

 

Thu, 01/29/2015 - 11:58am Kat Kerlin, UC Davis News Service Seafloor sediment cores reveal abrupt, extensive loss of oxygen in the ocean when ice sheets melted roughly 10,000 to 17,000 years ago, according to a study from the Univ. of California, Davis. The findings provide insight into similar changes observed in the ocean today. In the study, published in PLOS ONE, researchers analyzed marine sediment cores from different world regions to document the extent to which low oxygen zones in the ocean have expanded in the past, due to climate change. From the subarctic Pacific to the Chilean margins, they found evidence of extreme oxygen loss stretching from the upper ocean to about 3,000 m deep. In some oceanic regions, such loss took place over a time period of 100 years or less. “This is a global story that knits these regions together and shows that when you warm the planet rapidly, whole ocean basins can lose oxygen very abruptly and very extensively,” said lead author Sarah Moffitt, a postdoctoral scholar with the UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory and formerly a graduate student with the Graduate Group in Ecology.  Marine organisms, from salmon and sardines to crab and oysters, depend on oxygen to exist. Adapting to an ocean environment with rapidly dropping oxygen levels would require a major reorganization of living things and their habitats, much as today polar species on land are retreating to higher, cooler latitudes. The researchers chose the deglaciation period because it was a time of rising global temperatures, atmospheric carbon dioxide and sea levels—many of the global climate change signs the Earth is experiencing now. “Our modern ocean is moving into a state that has no precedent in human history,” Moffitt said. “The potential for our oceans to look very, very different in 100 to 150 years is real. How do you use the best available science to care for these critical resources in the future? Resource managers and conservationists can use science like this to guide a thoughtful, precautionary approach to environmental management.” Source: Univ. of California, Davis

Missing link in metal physics explains Earth’s magnetic field

 

Thu, 01/29/2015 - 9:58am Carnegie Institute Conception of Earth’s core overlaid by the electronic structure of iron; the width (fuzziness) of the lines results from the electron-electron scattering. Image: Ronald CohenEarth’s magnetic field is crucial for our existence, as it shields the life on our planet’s surface from deadly cosmic rays. It is generated by turbulent motions of liquid iron in Earth’s core. Iron is a metal, which means it can easily conduct a flow of electrons that makes up an electric current. New findings from a team including Carnegie Institute’s Ronald Cohen and Peng Zhang shows that a missing piece of the traditional theory explaining why metals become less conductive when they are heated was needed to complete the puzzle that explains this field-generating process. Their work is published in Nature. The center of the Earth is very hot, and the flow of heat from the planet’s center towards the surface is thought to drive most of the dynamics of the Earth, ranging from volcanoes to plate tectonics. It has long been thought that heat flow drives what is called thermal convection—the hottest liquid becomes less dense and rises, as the cooler, more-dense liquid sinks—in Earth’s liquid iron core and generates Earth’s magnetic field. But recent calculations called this theory into question, launching new quests for its explanation. In their work, Cohen and Zhang, along with Kristjan Haule of Rutgers Univ., used a new computational physics method and found that the original thermal convection theory was right all along. Their conclusion hinges on discovering that the classic theory of metals developed in the 1930’s was incomplete. The electrons in metals, such as the iron in Earth’s core, carry current and heat. A material’s resistivity impedes this flow. The classic theory of metals explains that resistivity increases with temperature, due to atoms vibrating more as the heat rises. The theory says that at high temperatures resistivity happens when electrons in the current bounce off of vibrating atoms. These bounced electrons scatter and resist the current flow. As temperature increases, the atoms vibrate more, and increasing the scattering of bounced electrons. The electrons not only carry charge, but also carry energy, so that thermal conductivity is proportional to the electrical conductivity. The work that had purportedly thrown the decades-old prevailing theory on the generation of Earth’s magnetic field out the window claimed that thermal convection could not drive magnetic-field generation. The calculations in those studies said that the resistivity of the molten metal in Earth’s core, which is generated by this electron scattering process, would be too low, and thus the thermal conductivity too high, to allow thermal convection to generate the magnetic field. Cohen, Zhang and Haule’s new work shows that the cause of about half of the resistivity generated was long neglected: it arises from electrons scattering off of each other, rather than off of atomic vibrations. “We uncovered an effect that had been hiding in plain sight for 80 years,” Cohen said. “And now the original dynamo theory works after all.” Source: Carnegie Institute

NASA, Boeing and SpaceX outline future of commercial manned spaceflight

 

NASA's Stephanie Schierholz introduces the panel of NASA and commercial representatives (Photo: NASA TV) Image Gallery (4 images) For several years, NASA and its private enterprise partners have been working on the space agency's Commercial Crew Program (CCP) to provide an astronaut ferry service from US soil to the International Space Station (ISS). Now a panel from NASA, Boeing, and SpaceX has outlined the latest timetable leading up to the first commercial flights. The two companies were selected last year by NASA to develop privately owned and operated US spacecraft to ferry crews to the ISS.. When certified, the Boeing CST-100 and SpaceXDragon V.2 (AKA Crew Dragon) will be able to travel to and from the ISS carrying up to seven passengers or a mixture of passengers and cargo. Being capable of remaining on station for 210 days, they will double as lifeboats; allowing ISS crews to expand to seven people. According to NASA, the extra crew will allow the time available for scientific experiments to grow from 40 to 80 hours per week. When fully deployed, Boeing and SpaceX will provide NASA with two independent systems for sending astronauts back and forth from the ISS. However, unlike during the Space race when companies would develop spacecraft in conjunction with NASA, which the latter would operate, the two companies retain ownership of the craft and are responsible for the development, launching, and operation of the vehicles, boosters, and recovery systems. On Monday, NASA and its partners outlined the next phases of the CCP. Boeing will continue development of its manned capsule with a pad abort test scheduled for February 2017, an unmanned flight test in April 2017, and then a flight with a Boeing test pilot and a NASA astronaut in July 2017. Meanwhile, SpaceX has announced a pad abort test for next month, with an in-flight abort test later this year, an unmanned flight test in late 2016, and a manned flight test in early 2017. During this process, NASA says that it is providing oversight to make certain that the two systems meet stringent safety standards, as well as the use of launch facilities at the Kennedy Space Center and the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Source: NASA

Sprayable Sleep looks to spray away insomnia

 

Just a couple of sprays before bed allows the melatonin formula to soak into the skin Image Gallery (4 images) A little more than a year ago, Gizmag featured an Indiegogo campaign that was marketing Sprayable Energy, which delivered a caffeine hit through the skin. Now the same company, Sprayable, has launched another campaign for a spray claimed to do the opposite – it puts you to sleep. Gizmag got a sample of Sprayable Sleep to put these claims to the test. Sprayable Sleep utilizes melatonin, which is a chemical that humans produce naturally to control our night-day cycle. According to the company, current oral melatonin pills, which are a common administration for aiding sleep, often contain 10 to 100 times more of the chemical than is necessary. Sprayable uses a fraction of the sleep-inducing juice, which the company claims will enter the body "gently and smoothly" over time as it gradually permeates the skin. While overdosing on melatonin is incredibly unlikely, even in oral use, the company still has a disclaimer saying, "do not exceed 8 sprays in 24 hours." "It definitely does run the risk of being a little too effective for some people," says Ben Yu, one of the co-founders of Sprayable. "Since it absorbs steadily through the skin, some people have reported that despite sleeping really well, they end up needing more sleep than they planned for, and consequently when they force themselves awake before their bodies are ready to wake up with an alarm clock, they do still feel a little groggy.” The difference, as the company sees it, is that Sprayable Sleep emulates the body’s natural melatonin production, bypassing the digestive system and making the application more natural than taking the chemical in pill form. The initial application was a bit off-putting for me, as I'm not generally accustomed to sprays or colognes, but after the initial wince of uncertainty, the application process was smooth. I was pleasantly surprised that there was no stickiness to the formula, and the company claims it is odorless as well. While this was mostly true, there was a light, new-car-esque smell, though this may have been from manufacturing rather than the formula itself. Application is recommended either on each side of the neck or each wrist an hour before bed. While this writer only experienced mildly-heavy eyes after administration, my wife was out within twenty minutes. There was little odor and the mist was easy to apply. This method of application certainly feels more natural than pills, but as can be expected, results will vary. One bottle costs US$15, and contains enough of the insomnia killer to last one month. Sprayable Sleep already has over US$125,000 raised on the Indiegogo campaign, with 31 days still to go. If it keeps this pace, Sprayable Sleep will leave its predecessor in its wake.   Source: Sprayable

Stunning forests

 

Most beautiful forests in the world

Researchers design tailored tissue adhesives

 

Thu, 01/29/2015 - 8:17am Anne Trafton, MIT News Office   MIT researchers have created a tissue adhesive (pictured here in red) that could be used to repair surgical incisions following colon surgery. Image: Jose-Luis Olivares/MITAfter undergoing surgery to remove diseased sections of the colon, up to 30% of patients experience leakage from their sutures, which can cause life-threatening complications. Many efforts are under way to create new tissue glues that can help seal surgical incisions and prevent such complications; now, a new study from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) reveals that the effectiveness of such glues hinges on the state of the tissue in which they are being used. The researchers found that a sealant they had previously developed worked much differently in cancerous colon tissue than in colon tissue inflamed with colitis. The finding suggests that for this sealant or any other kind of biomaterial designed to work inside the human body, scientists must take into account the environment in which the material will be used, instead of using a “one-size fits all” approach, according to the researchers. “This paper shows why that mentality is risky,” says Natalie Artzi, a research scientist at MIT’s Institute for Medical Science and Engineering (IMES) and senior author of a paper describing the findings in Science Translational Medicine. “We present a new paradigm by which to design and examine materials. Detailed study of tissue and biomaterial interactions can open a new chapter in precision medicine, where biomaterials are chosen and rationally designed to match specific tissue types and disease states.” After characterizing the adhesive material’s performance in different diseased tissues, the researchers created a model that allows them to predict how it will work in different environments, opening the door to a more personalized approach to treating individual patients. Elazer Edelman, the Thomas D. and Virginia W. Cabot Professor of Health Sciences and Technology and a member of IMES, is also a senior author of the paper. The paper’s lead authors are graduate student Nuria Oliva and former graduate student Maria Carcole. Exploring material properties Artzi and Edelman originally developed this tissue glue several years ago by combining two polymers—dextran (a polysaccharide) and a highly branched chain called dendrimer. In a 2009 paper, the researchers demonstrated that such adhesives work better when tailored to specific organs. In their new paper, they explored what happens when an adhesive is used in the same organ but under different disease conditions. They show that the adhesive actually performed better in cancerous colon tissue than in healthy tissue. However, it performed worse in tissue inflamed with colitis than in healthy tissue. Further studies of the molecular interactions between the adhesive and tissue explained those differences in behavior. The tissue glue works through a system where molecules in the adhesive serve as “keys” that interact with “locks”—chemical structures called amines found in abundance in structural tissue known as collagen. When enough of these locks and keys bind each other, the adhesive forms a tight seal. This system is disrupted in colitic tissue because the inflammation breaks down collagen. The more severe the inflammation, the less adhesion occurs. However, cancerous tissue tends to have excess collagen, so the adhesive ends up working better than in healthy tissue. “Now we show that adhesive-material performance is not organ-dependent, but rather, disease type and state-dependent,” says Artzi, who is also an assistant professor at Harvard Medical School. Predicting adhesion Using this data, the researchers created a model to help them alter the composition of the material depending on the circumstances. By changing the materials’ molecular weight, the number of keys attached to each polymer, and the ratio of the two polymers, the researchers can tune it to perform best in different types and states of tissue. An inherent property of the adhesive is that any unused keys are absorbed back into the polymer, preventing them from causing any undesired side effects. This would allow the researchers to create two or three different versions that could cover a wide range of tissues. “We can take a biopsy from a patient for a quick readout of disease state that would serve as an input for our model, and the output is the precise material composition that should be used to attain adequate adhesion,” Artzi says. “This exercise can be done in a clinical setting.” Doctors have begun using this kind of personalized approach when choosing drugs that match individual patients’ genetic profiles, but it has not yet spread to the selection of biomaterials such as tissue glue. The MIT team now hopes to move the sealant into clinical trials and has founded a company to help that process along. “It’s something that we want to do as rapidly as possible,” Edelman says. “We’re excited. It’s not often that you have a technology that is this close to clinical introduction.” Source: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Colorized historical photos

 

Realistically colorized historical photos Albert Einstein in Long Island, 1939 (Photo credit: Paul Edwards)